Okay, we investigated some more (thanks @MSLaguana and @irinayat-MS) and the issue is that your output binaries don't include the ChakraCore string resources, so when constructing an exception the program fails to find the string. When we build ChakraCore.dll, we include jserr.gen: the vcxproj creates a .rc2 file, and then another file includes it. In order to access any strings from rterrors.h you'll need to do something similar.
This is continuation of the https://github.com/Microsoft/ChakraCore/issues/5660.
Suggested solution: