[🐛 Bug]: ruby - Selenium::WebDriver::Error::InvalidArgumentError: invalid argument: 'handle' must be a string

What happened?

We are experiencing intermittent and seemingly random test failures locally and in CI where chromedriver responds with "invalid argument: 'handle' must be a string" to a call from Selenium to get window handles. Detailed logs are included below.

How can we reproduce the issue?

ruby: 3.1.4p223
capybara: 3.40.0
selenium-webdriver: 4.25.0
chromedriver: 130.0.6723.69

tests failures can happen in any of our feature tests somewhat randomly where one run fails but will pass when re-run. The failures are reported around lines like:

expect(page).to have_content("xyz", wait: 20)

The error is reported as:
     1.1) Failure/Error: expect(page).to have_content("xyz", wait: 20)

          NoMethodError:
            undefined method `map' for 1:Integer

                      ids.map { |id| Bridge.element_class.new self, element_id_from(id) }
                         ^^^^
            Did you mean?  tap

     1.2) Failure/Error: raise ex, cause: cause

          Selenium::WebDriver::Error::InvalidArgumentError:
            invalid argument: 'handle' must be a string
              (Session info: chrome=130.0.6723.70)

I have included debug logs below and can try to recreate in a separate repo independent of our codebase if necessary.

Relevant log output

2024-10-25 15:21:52 DEBUG Selenium [:command] -> POST session/a7def88c1a04f1c586768fd0f05226d0/window 
2024-10-25 15:21:52 DEBUG Selenium [:command]    >>> http://127.0.0.1:9515/session/a7def88c1a04f1c586768fd0f05226d0/window | {"handle":{"element-6066-11e4-a52e-4f735466cecf":"f.7AB7119F5249502AE0F8482306FC499C.d.6A5B956DD7D43976E148E3D249883075.e.34"}} 
2024-10-25 15:21:52 DEBUG Selenium [:header]      > {"Accept"=>"application/json", "Content-Type"=>"application/json; charset=UTF-8", "User-Agent"=>"selenium/4.25.0 (ruby macosx)", "Content-Length"=>"127"} 
[1729894912.583][INFO]: [a7def88c1a04f1c586768fd0f05226d0] COMMAND SwitchToWindow {
   "handle": {
      "element-6066-11e4-a52e-4f735466cecf": "f.7AB7119F5249502AE0F8482306FC499C.d.6A5B956DD7D43976E148E3D249883075.e.34"
   }
}
2024-10-25 15:21:52 DEBUG Selenium [:header]    <<<  {"content-length"=>["46"], "content-type"=>["application/json; charset=utf-8"], "cache-control"=>["no-cache"]} 
2024-10-25 15:21:52 DEBUG Selenium [:command] <- {"value":["7AB7119F5249502AE0F8482306FC499C"]} 
[1729894912.583][INFO]: [a7def88c1a04f1c586768fd0f05226d0] RESPONSE SwitchToWindow ERROR invalid argument: 'handle' must be a string
  (Session info: chrome=130.0.6723.70)
2024-10-25 15:21:52 DEBUG Selenium [:command] -> GET session/a7def88c1a04f1c586768fd0f05226d0/window/handles 
[1729894912.583][INFO]: [a7def88c1a04f1c586768fd0f05226d0] COMMAND GetWindows {
}
[1729894912.583][DEBUG]: DevTools WebSocket Command: Target.getTargets (id=36283) (session_id=) browser {
}
2024-10-25 15:21:52 DEBUG Selenium [:header]    <<<  {"content-length"=>["1561"], "content-type"=>["application/json; charset=utf-8"], "cache-control"=>["no-cache"]} 
2024-10-25 15:21:52 DEBUG Selenium [:command] <- {"value":{"error":"invalid argument","message":"invalid argument: 'handle' must be a string\n  (Session info: chrome=130.0.6723.70)","stacktrace":"0   chromedriver                        0x000000010345f634 cxxbridge1$str$ptr + 3645404\n1   chromedriver                        0x0000000103457e94 cxxbridge1$str$ptr + 3614780\n2   chromedriver                        0x0000000102ec4104 cxxbridge1$string$len + 88416\n3   chromedriver                        0x0000000102f33114 cxxbridge1$string$len + 543088\n4   chromedriver                        0x0000000102efaf54 cxxbridge1$string$len + 313264\n5   chromedriver                        0x0000000102efbba4 cxxbridge1$string$len + 316416\n6   chromedriver                        0x000000010342a1d4 cxxbridge1$str$ptr + 3427196\n7   chromedriver                        0x000000010342d518 cxxbridge1$str$ptr + 3440320\n8   chromedriver                        0x00000001034115f8 cxxbridge1$str$ptr + 3325856\n9   chromedriver                        0x000000010342dddc cxxbridge1$str$ptr + 3442564\n10  chromedriver                        0x000000010340287c cxxbridge1$str$ptr + 3265060\n11  chromedriver                        0x0000000103448884 cxxbridge1$str$ptr + 3551788\n12  chromedriver                        0x0000000103448a00 cxxbridge1$str$ptr + 3552168\n13  chromedriver                        0x0000000103457b2c cxxbridge1$str$ptr + 3613908\n14  libsystem_pthread.dylib             0x0000000188a21f94 _pthread_start + 136\n15  libsystem_pthread.dylib             0x0000000188a1cd34 thread_start + 8\n"}} 
[1729894912.583][DEBUG]: DevTools WebSocket Response: Target.getTargets (id=36283) (session_id=) browser {
   "targetInfos": [ {
      "attached": true,
      "browserContextId": "9FEEAF8971EE19927D1B59D8DC629E42",
      "canAccessOpener": false,
      "targetId": "7AB7119F5249502AE0F8482306FC499C",
      "title": "Motion iQ",
      "type": "page",
      "url": "http://127.0.0.1:65110/pathways/1"
   } ]
}
[1729894912.583][INFO]: [a7def88c1a04f1c586768fd0f05226d0] RESPONSE GetWindows [ "7AB7119F5249502AE0F8482306FC499C" ]

Operating System

macOS Sonoma 14.6.1

Selenium version

ruby: 3.1.4p223, selenium-webdriver: 4.25.0

What are the browser(s) and version(s) where you see this issue?

chrome 130.0.6723.70

What are the browser driver(s) and version(s) where you see this issue?

chromedriver 130.0.6723.69

SeleniumHQ / selenium

[🐛 Bug]: ruby - Selenium::WebDriver::Error::InvalidArgumentError: invalid argument: 'handle' must be a string #14653