Pure isotopes would have to be refined before being used to create heavier elements.
Deuterium Enrichment
Girdler sulfide process will be used. Ultra-pure water is needed for the process.
Gas Centrifuge
Mainly used to separate heavier isotopes in gas form. Elements must first be converted to a gaseous compound before being put in a gas centrifuge. For example, uranium hexafluoride and diethyl zinc. The gas separation process is quite lengthy.
List of elements that can be separated this way:
Uranium
Zinc
Boron (in the form of boron fluoride)
Plutonium (in the form of plutonium hexafluoride)
Other superheavy elements
Cryogenic Distillation
Mainly used to separate lighter isotopes that are in gaseous form or gaseous compounds. This includes carbon (in methane), oxygen, and neon. This process requires special distillation towers that can handle cryogenic distillation and are very tall.
Carbon-12 & Carbon-13 are separated by cryogenic distillation of carbon monoxide or methane
Neon-22
Oxygen-16 & Oxygen-18 are separated by distillation of water
Chemical methods
Lithium-6 and lithium-7 separation (already implemented in GCYS)
Calcium-48
Uses for superheavy elements
These have a wide variety of properties that would be useful for several categories below. These superheavy elements would somehow have to be stabilized. Noble superheavy elements could be used in catalysts, electronics, and late-game alloys.
Rutherfordium
Rutherfordium dioxide is a very stable refractory material
Hassium
Bulk modulus of 450 GPa (slightly higher than diamond)
Can crystallize
Higher density than osmium
Is a very noble metal
Can form hassocene
Meitnerium
Higher density than osmium
Is a noble metal
Is paramagnetic
Darmstadtium
Can crystallize
Higher density than osmium
Is a very noble metal
Roentgenium
Can crystallize
Higher density than osmium
Is a very noble metal
Copernicium
Very noble metal
Gaseous & extremely volatile
Is a semiconductor
Nihonium
Noble metal
Flerovium
Gaseous & extremely volatile
Has metallic properties as well, but is very unreactive
Moscovium
Similar to lighter homologues (P, As, Sn, Bi) but with quite some differences
Easily polarizable
Tennesine
Similar to lighter homologues (O, S, Se, Te, Po) but with quite some differences
Strongest oxidizing agent
Oganesson
Semiconductor
Extreme polarizability
Reactive
High boiling point
Element 164 (Unhexquintium)
Extremely high density
Noble metal
Element 173 (Unsepttrium)
Extremely reactive
Superheavy Element Production
Neutron irradiators, ion implantation and particle accelerators will be used to produce artificial elements. Nobelium and any element after will be produced in advanced particle accelerator multiblocks, rather than ion implantation machines. Each superheavy element has 2 steps in production. Production in nuclear reactions, and then separation from byproducts in nuclear reactions. There are a LOT of pathways that players can take to produce superheavy elements, involving combining different lighter elements, waiting on decay chains, and neutron bombardments. However, the player will have to separate them from byproducts everytime. Players can make superheavy elements that have no other use other than to make heavier superheavy elements. These are very radioactive, so a method of stabilizing them would be required.
Only add decay recipes for isotopes that can be made in the first place.
Actinium
Not a superheavy element, but still might be useful.
Production
Radium-226 is irradiated with neutrons, converting about 2% of it to Radium-227 and other products. Radium-227's half life is 40 minutes, decaying to actinium-227.
Separation
The nuclear waste is dissolved in nitric acid. The actinium and radium are separated from the nuclear waste using a mix of thenoyltrifluoroacetone and benzene in liquid-liquid extraction. The actinium and radium are then separated from each other by ion exchange chromatography, using dowex beads and nitric acid eluant.
The dowex beads are made of styrene-divinylbenzene polymers containing iminodiacetic acid.
Berkelium
Production
Plutonium-239 is heavily bombarded with neutrons, producing several heavier elements, including Curium-249, which isn't obtainable from processing uranium nuclear waste. Curium-249's half life is 60 minutes, decaying to Berkelium-249.
Separation
The nuclear waste is dissolved in nitric acid. The berkelium-249 is extracted from the nuclear waste by oxidization to the +4 state by ozone, allowing it to be extracted by bis-2-ethylhexyl phosphoric acid.
Californium
Production
Berkelium-249 is irradiated with neutrons, converting some of it to berkelium-250. Berkelium-250 decays to Californium-250. Bombarding curium with neutrons creates californium-249. Californium-250 can be bombarded with more neutrons to create californium-251 and californium-252
Separation
The nuclear waste is dissolved in nitric acid, and the californium is separated from other elements by ion exchange chromatography, using alpha-hydroxyisobutyric acid eluant and dowex beads.
Einsteinium-247 was produced by bombarding americium-241 with accelerated carbon ions, or bombarding uranium-238 with nitrogen ions in a particle accelerator
Einsteinium-248 was produced by bombarding californium-249 with deuterium ions in a particle accelerator
Einsteinium-249, -250, -251, 252 are produced by bombarding Berkelium-249 with helium particles
Einsteinium-253 was produced by heavy neutron bombardment of californium-252
Einsteinium-253, -254, -255 are produced by heavy neutron bombardment of plutonium or bombarding uranium-238 with oxygen ion beams in a particle accelerator
Separation
The nuclear waste is dissolved in nitric acid, and the einsteinium is separated from other elements by ion exchange chromatography, using alpha-hydroxyisobutyric acid eluant and dowex beads.
The nuclear waste is dissolved in nitric acid, and the fermium is separated from other elements by ion exchange chromatography, using alpha-hydroxyisobutyric acid eluant and dowex beads.
A gold foil is placed behind the target used to produce mendelevium. Produced mendelevium atoms will hit the gold foil due to remaining momentum after hitting the target used to make mendelevium. The gold foil containing the mendelevium is dissolved in aqua regia. The actinides are separated from the gold by ion exchange chromatography, using hydrochloric acid eluant and DEAE-Sepharose beads. The mendelevium is purified from other nuclear waste, using ion exchange chromatography with alpha-hydroxyisobutyric acid eluant and dowex beads.
The DEAE-Sepharose beads are a mix of diethylaminoethanol and agarose.
Nobelium
Production
Nobelium and any element after will be produced in advanced particle accelerator multiblocks, rather than ion implantation machines. The lower the cross section, the lower the chance of a successful reaction.
Cross-section: A few hundred nanobarns
Energy: 75 MeV
Isotope Separation
Pure isotopes would have to be refined before being used to create heavier elements.
Deuterium Enrichment
Girdler sulfide process will be used. Ultra-pure water is needed for the process.
Gas Centrifuge
Mainly used to separate heavier isotopes in gas form. Elements must first be converted to a gaseous compound before being put in a gas centrifuge. For example, uranium hexafluoride and diethyl zinc. The gas separation process is quite lengthy.
List of elements that can be separated this way: Uranium Zinc Boron (in the form of boron fluoride) Plutonium (in the form of plutonium hexafluoride) Other superheavy elements
Cryogenic Distillation
Mainly used to separate lighter isotopes that are in gaseous form or gaseous compounds. This includes carbon (in methane), oxygen, and neon. This process requires special distillation towers that can handle cryogenic distillation and are very tall.
Carbon-12 & Carbon-13 are separated by cryogenic distillation of carbon monoxide or methane Neon-22 Oxygen-16 & Oxygen-18 are separated by distillation of water
Chemical methods
Lithium-6 and lithium-7 separation (already implemented in GCYS) Calcium-48
Uses for superheavy elements
These have a wide variety of properties that would be useful for several categories below. These superheavy elements would somehow have to be stabilized. Noble superheavy elements could be used in catalysts, electronics, and late-game alloys.
Rutherfordium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium
Flerovium
Moscovium
Tennesine
Oganesson
Element 164 (Unhexquintium)
Element 173 (Unsepttrium)
Superheavy Element Production
Neutron irradiators, ion implantation and particle accelerators will be used to produce artificial elements. Nobelium and any element after will be produced in advanced particle accelerator multiblocks, rather than ion implantation machines. Each superheavy element has 2 steps in production. Production in nuclear reactions, and then separation from byproducts in nuclear reactions. There are a LOT of pathways that players can take to produce superheavy elements, involving combining different lighter elements, waiting on decay chains, and neutron bombardments. However, the player will have to separate them from byproducts everytime. Players can make superheavy elements that have no other use other than to make heavier superheavy elements. These are very radioactive, so a method of stabilizing them would be required.
Only add decay recipes for isotopes that can be made in the first place.
Actinium
Not a superheavy element, but still might be useful.
Production
Radium-226 is irradiated with neutrons, converting about 2% of it to Radium-227 and other products. Radium-227's half life is 40 minutes, decaying to actinium-227.
Separation
The nuclear waste is dissolved in nitric acid. The actinium and radium are separated from the nuclear waste using a mix of thenoyltrifluoroacetone and benzene in liquid-liquid extraction. The actinium and radium are then separated from each other by ion exchange chromatography, using dowex beads and nitric acid eluant.
The dowex beads are made of styrene-divinylbenzene polymers containing iminodiacetic acid.
Berkelium
Production
Plutonium-239 is heavily bombarded with neutrons, producing several heavier elements, including Curium-249, which isn't obtainable from processing uranium nuclear waste. Curium-249's half life is 60 minutes, decaying to Berkelium-249.
Separation
The nuclear waste is dissolved in nitric acid. The berkelium-249 is extracted from the nuclear waste by oxidization to the +4 state by ozone, allowing it to be extracted by bis-2-ethylhexyl phosphoric acid.
Californium
Production
Berkelium-249 is irradiated with neutrons, converting some of it to berkelium-250. Berkelium-250 decays to Californium-250. Bombarding curium with neutrons creates californium-249. Californium-250 can be bombarded with more neutrons to create californium-251 and californium-252
Separation
The nuclear waste is dissolved in nitric acid, and the californium is separated from other elements by ion exchange chromatography, using alpha-hydroxyisobutyric acid eluant and dowex beads.
alpha-hydroxyisobutyric acid production: https://patents.google.com/patent/US4351955A/en
Einsteinium
Production
Einsteinium-247 was produced by bombarding americium-241 with accelerated carbon ions, or bombarding uranium-238 with nitrogen ions in a particle accelerator
Einsteinium-248 was produced by bombarding californium-249 with deuterium ions in a particle accelerator
Einsteinium-249, -250, -251, 252 are produced by bombarding Berkelium-249 with helium particles
Einsteinium-253 was produced by heavy neutron bombardment of californium-252
Einsteinium-253, -254, -255 are produced by heavy neutron bombardment of plutonium or bombarding uranium-238 with oxygen ion beams in a particle accelerator
Separation
The nuclear waste is dissolved in nitric acid, and the einsteinium is separated from other elements by ion exchange chromatography, using alpha-hydroxyisobutyric acid eluant and dowex beads.
Fermium
Production
Lead-204 + Argon-40 -> Fermium-241, Fermium-242 Lead-206 + Argon-40 -> Fermium-242, Fermium-243 Uranium-233 + Oxygen-16 -> Fermium-244, Fermium-245 Uranium-235 + Oxygen-16 -> Fermium-246 Plutonium-239 + Carbon-12 -> Fermium-247 Plutonium-240 + Carbon-12 -> Fermium-248 Uranium-238 + Oxygen-16 -> Fermium-249, Fermium-250 Californium-249 + Helium -> Fermium-251, Fermium-252 Californium-252 + Helium -> Fermium-253
Separation
The nuclear waste is dissolved in nitric acid, and the fermium is separated from other elements by ion exchange chromatography, using alpha-hydroxyisobutyric acid eluant and dowex beads.
Mendelevium
Production
Bismuth-209 + Argon-40 -> Mendelevium-244, -245, -246, -247 Americium-241 + Carbon-12 -> Mendelevium-248, -249 Americium-243 + Carbon-12 -> Mendelevium-250, -251 Americium-243 + Carbon-13 -> Mendelevium-250, -251, -252, -253 Einsteinium-253 + Helium -> Mendelevium-254, -255, -256 Californium-252 + Boron-11 -> Mendelevium-257 Einsteibium-255 + Helium -> Mendelevium-258 Curium-248 + Oxygen-18 -> Mendelevium-259
Separation
A gold foil is placed behind the target used to produce mendelevium. Produced mendelevium atoms will hit the gold foil due to remaining momentum after hitting the target used to make mendelevium. The gold foil containing the mendelevium is dissolved in aqua regia. The actinides are separated from the gold by ion exchange chromatography, using hydrochloric acid eluant and DEAE-Sepharose beads. The mendelevium is purified from other nuclear waste, using ion exchange chromatography with alpha-hydroxyisobutyric acid eluant and dowex beads.
The DEAE-Sepharose beads are a mix of diethylaminoethanol and agarose.
Nobelium
Production
Nobelium and any element after will be produced in advanced particle accelerator multiblocks, rather than ion implantation machines. The lower the cross section, the lower the chance of a successful reaction.
Cross-section: A few hundred nanobarns Energy: 75 MeV
Cold fusions: Lead-204 + Calcium-48 -> Nobelium-249, -250 Lead-208 + Calcium-44 -> Nobelium-250 Lead-206 + Calcium-48 -> Nobelium-250, -251, -252, -253 Lead-207 + Calcium-48 -> Nobelium-253 Lead-208 + Calcium-48 -> Nobelium-252, -253, -254, -256
Hot fusions:
Curium-244 + Carbon-12 -> Nobelium-251, -252 Americium-241 + Nitrogen-15 -> Nobelium-252 Plutonium-239 + Oxygen-18 -> Nobelium-252 Uranium-235 + Neon-22 -> Nobelium-252 Curium-244 + Carbon-13 -> Nobelium-253 Uranium-236 + Neon-22 -> Nobelium-252, -253, -254 Thorium-232 + Magnesium-26 -> Nobelium-252, -253, -254 Curium-246 + Carbon-12 -> Nobelium-253, -254 Americium-243 + Nitrogen-15 -> Nobelium-254 Californium-249 + Carbon-12 -> Nobelium-255 Curium-246 + Carbon-13 -> Nobelium-254, -255 Uranium-238 + Neon-22 -> Nobelium-254, -255, -256 Curium-248 + Carbon-12 -> Nobelium-255, -256 Plutonium-242 + Oxygen-18 -> Nobelium-256 Californium-252 + Carbon-12 -> Nobelium-257 Californium-252 + Boron-11 -> Nobelium-257 Curium-248 + Carbon-13 -> Nobelium-256, -257, -258 Curium-248 + Oxygen-18 -> Nobelium-259
Decays:
Lawrencium-262 -> Nobelium-262 Hassium-269, Seaborgium-265, Rutherfordium-261 -> Nobelium-257 Hassium-267, Seaborgium-263, Rutherfordium-259 -> Nobelium-255 Lawrencium-254 -> Nobelium-254 Seaborgium-261, Rutherfordium-257 -> Nobelium-253 Hassium-264, Seaborgium-260, Rutherfordium-256 -> Nobelium-252 Rutherfordium-255 -> Nobelium-251
Separation
Same as mendelevium
Lawrencium
Production
Cross-section: A few hundred nanobarns Energy: 75 MeV
Cold Fusions Thallium-203 + Titanium-50 -> Lawrencium-251 Thallium-205 + Titanium-50 -> Lawrencium-253 Lead-208 + Titanium-48 -> Lawrencium-254 Bismuth-209 + Calcium-48 -> Lawrencium-255
Hot Fusions Americium-243 + Oxygen-16 -> Lawrencium-255 Americium-243 + Oxygen-18 -> Lawrencium-256 Californium-249 + Boron-11 -> Lawrencium-256 Californium-252 + Boron-10 -> Lawrencium-256, -258 Californium-250, Nitrogen-14 -> Lawrencium-257 Curium-246 + Nitrogen-14 -> Lawrencium-257 Californium-249 + Nitrogen-15 -> Lawrencium-257, -258 Californium-252 + Boron-11 -> Lawrencium-258 Californium-249 + Carbon-12 -> Lawrencium-258 Curium-248 + Nitrogen-15 -> Lawrencium-258, -259, -260 Berkelium-249 + Oxygen-18 -> Lawrencium-260 Curium-248 + Oxygen-18 -> Lawrencium-261, -262
Decays
Separation
Same as mendelevium
Rutherfordium
Production
Cross-section: A few tens of nanobarns Energy: 100 MeV
Cold fusions: Lead-204 + Titanium-50 -> Rutherfordium-253 Lead-206 + Titanium-50 -> Rutherfordium-254, -255 Lead-208 + Titanium-48 -> Rutherfordium-255 Lead-208 + Titanium-50 -> Rutherfordium-255, -256, -257
Hot fusions: Californium-249 + Carbon-13 -> Rutherfordium-258 Plutonium-242 + Neon-22 -> Rutherfordium-259, -261 Curium-248 + Oxygen-16 -> Rutherfordium-260 Berkelium-249 + Nitrogen-14 -> Rutherfordium-260 Uranium-238 + Magnesium-26 -> Rutherfordium-258, -259, -260, -261 Plutonium-244 + Neon-22 -> Rutherfordium-261, -262
Decays: Seaborgium-271 -> Rutherfordium-267 Dubnium-268 -> Rutherfordium-268 Dubnium-270 -> Rutherfordium-270
Separation
Same as mendelevium
Dubnium
Production
Cross-section: A few nanobarns Energy: 100 MeV
Fusion:
Decay:
Separation
Same as mendelevium
Seaborgium
Production
Cross-section: A few hundred picobarns Energy: 150 MeV
Fusion:
Decay:
Separation
Same as mendelevium
Bohrium
Production
Cross-section: A few hundred picobarns Energy: 150 MeV
Fusion:
Decay:
Separation
Same as mendelevium
Hassium
Production
Cross-section: A few hundred picobarns Energy: 150 MeV
Fusion:
Decay:
Separation
Same as mendelevium
Meitnerium
Production
Cross-section: A few tens of picobarns Energy: 200 MeV
Fusion:
Decay:
Separation
Same as mendelevium
Darmstadtium
Production
Cross-section: A few tens of picobarns Energy: 200 MeV
Fusion:
Decay:
Separation
Same as mendelevium
Roentgenium
Production
Cross-section: A few tens of picobarns Energy: 200 MeV
Fusion:
Decay:
Separation
Same as mendelevium
Copernicium
Production
Cross-section: A few tens of picobarns Energy: 200 MeV
Fusion:
Decay:
Separation
Same as mendelevium
Nihonium
Production
Cross-section: A few picobarns Energy: 250 MeV
Fusion:
Decay:
Separation
Same as mendelevium
Flerovium
Production
Cross-section: A few picobarns Energy: 250 MeV
Fusion:
Decay:
Separation
Same as mendelevium
Flerovium
Production
Cross-section: A few picobarns Energy: 250 MeV
Fusion:
Separation
Same as mendelevium
Livermorium
Production
Cross-section: A few picobarns Energy: 300 MeV
Fusion:
Separation
Same as mendelevium
Tennessine
Production
Cross-section: A few hundred femtobarns Energy: 300 MeV
Fusion:
Separation
Same as mendelevium
Oganesson
Production
Cross-section: A few hundred femtobarns Energy: 300 MeV
Fusion:
Separation
Same as mendelevium