From looking through this, there are definitely different standards for reporting different types of events, and we might want to use some as examples for pathways for hazard bias.
First, there's some documentation about in general what's included:
"Storm Data is an official publication of the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) which documents:
a. The occurrence of storms and other significant weather phenomena having
sufficient intensity to cause loss of life, injuries, significant property damage, and/or
disruption to commerce;
b. Rare, unusual, weather phenomena that generate media attention, such as snow
flurries in South Florida or the San Diego coastal area; and
c. Other significant meteorological events, such as record maximum or minimum
temperatures or precipitation that occur in connection with another event. "
So, it's not capturing every case of something that occurs, but more focusing on things that are unusual (snow in Florida, record-breaking events) and things that impact humans (loss of life, etc.). Further, for some things (record-breaking temperatures, for example), based on this, they're maybe only recorded if they come along with another event.
This guidance depends on event type, though, because later that say:
"The chosen event name should be the one that most accurately
describes the meteorological event leading to fatalities, injuries, damage, etc. However,
significant events, such as tornadoes, having no impact or causing no damage, should also be
included in Storm Data."
So it sounds like they are trying to catch every tornado. I think this would create hazard bias, right? The probability of an event being recorded if it happens would be higher for tornadoes than other types of events, based on this standard.
Some event-specific notes:
Related to probability of a report being included at all:
Events that only are included based on their impacts, noteworthiness, or public interest:
Astronomical Low Tide: Only recorded when they "result in deaths, injuries, watercraft damage, or significant economic impact due to low water levels."
Avalanche: Only report those "resulting in a fatality, injury, or significant damage"
Coastal Flood: Only report those "resulting in damage, erosion, flooding, fatalities, or injuries"
Dense Fog: "Water droplets suspended in the air just above the Earth’s surface
reducing visibility to values equal to or below locally/regionally established values for dense fog
(usually 1/4 mile or less) and impacting transportation or commerce."
Dense Smoke: "Dense smoke, reducing visibilities to values equal to or below locally/regionally established values (usually ¼ mile or less), that adversely affects people and/or impacts transportation or commerce."
Dust Devil: "Dust devils that do not produce a fatality, injury, or significant damage may be entered as an event if they are unusually large, noteworthy, or create strong public or media interest."
Dust Storm: Only those that "result in a fatality, injury, damage, or major disruption of transportation"
Borderline: Flash Flood: "A life-threatening, rapid rise of water into a normally dry area beginning within minutes to multiple hours of the causative event (e.g., intense rainfall, dam failure, ice jam)." Doesn't have to cause a fatality, but needs to happen somewhere where it could, it sounds like. There is also this note: "To maintain the most reliable data set it is important to separate low-impact flooding from flash flooding. Low-impact flooding should not be considered a Flash Flood event; rather it should be considered a Flood event. Low-impact flooding does not pose a significant threat to life or property in the same way a Flash Flood does."
Flood: Any high flow, overflow, or inundation by water which causes damage."
Freezing Fog: Only those "resulting in an impact on transportation, commerce, or individuals"
Funnel Cloud: "The funnel cloud should be large, noteworthy, or create strong public or media interest to be entered."
Heavy Rain: "Unusually large amount of rain which does not cause a Flash Flood or Flood event, but causes damage, e.g., roof collapse or other human/economic impact."
High Surf: Only those "causing a fatality, injury or damage."
Lakeshore Flood: Only those "resulting in damage, erosion, flooding, fatalities, or injuries"
Lightning: only that "resulting in a fatality, injury, and/or damage"
Marine Dense Fog: only that "resulting in a fatality, injury, or damage"
Marine Hail: "Hail 3/4 of an inch in diameter or larger, occurring over the waters and bays of the ocean, Great Lakes, and other lakes with assigned specific Marine Forecast Zones, will be entered." Although they also note that smaller hail can be included if it causes damage: "Hail of smaller size, causing damage to watercraft or fixed platforms, should be entered."
Marine Heavy Freezing Spray: only those "which lead to the loss of life or property damage"
Marine High Wind: ". Non-convective, sustained winds or frequent gusts of 48 knots (55 mph) or more, resulting in a fatality, injury, or damage, over the waters and bays of the ocean, Great Lakes, and other lakes with assigned specific Marine Forecast Zones. "
Marine Hurricane/Typhoon: Only those that "results in a fatality, injury, or damage to watercraft or fixed platform"
Marine Lightning: Only those "resulting in a fatality, injury, and/or damage"
Marine Strong Wind: Only those "resulting in a fatality, injury, or damage"
Marine Thunderstorm Wind: Only those that "result in a fatality, injury, or damage to watercraft or fixed platforms."
Marine Tropical Depression: Only those that "result in a fatality, injury, or damage to watercraft or fixed platforms."
Marine Tropical Storm: Only those that "results in a fatality, injury, or damage to watercraft or fixed platforms."
Rip Currents: "Rip currents will be listed in Storm Data only when they cause a drowning, near-drowning, result in one or more rescues, or damage to watercraft."
Seiche: In the Beginning Time info, it notes that it should be for events " resulting in a fatality, injury or damage."
Sneaker Wave: Specifies that is should be those "resulting in a fatality or damage"
Storm Surge/Time: Only those "resulting in damage, erosion, flooding, fatalities, or injuries"
Strong Wind: Only those "resulting in a fatality, injury, or damage"
Thunderstorm Wind: "Winds, arising from convection (occurring within 30 minutes of lightning being observed or detected), with speeds of at least 50 knots (58 mph), or winds of any speed (non-severe thunderstorm winds below 50 knots) producing a fatality, injury, or damage."
Tsunami: Only those "resulting in a fatality, injury or damage"
Volcanic Ash: Only those "resulting in fatalities, injuries, damage, or a disruption of transportation and/or commerce"
Wildfire: "Any significant forest fire, grassland fire, rangeland fire, or wildland-urban interface fire that consumes the natural fuels and spreads in response to its environment. “Significant” is defined as a wildfire that causes one or more fatalities, one or more significant injuries, and/or property damage (optional: include significant damages to firefighting equipment if loss estimates are available)."
Winter Weather: Only if it "causes a death, injury, or a significant impact to commerce or transportation, but does not meet locally/regionally defined warning criteria"
Events that are recorded based on their intensity (or having happened at all):
Blizzard: "A winter storm which produces the following conditions for 3 consecutive hours or longer: (1) sustained winds or frequent gusts 30 knots (35 mph) or greater, and (2) falling and/or blowing snow reducing visibility frequently to less than 1/4 mile"
Cold/Wind Chill: "Period of low temperatures or wind chill temperatures reaching or exceeding locally/regionally defined advisory (typical value is -18 degrees F or colder) conditions". Although they also note that, in some cases, something less severe would be recorded if it causes a fatality, and that all events that meet the definition should cause human impacts: "There can be situations where advisory criteria are not met, but the combination of seasonably cold temperatures and low wind chill values (roughly 15 degrees F below normal) may result in a fatality. In these situations, a cold/wind chill event may be documented if the weather conditions were the primary cause of death as determined by a medical examiner or coroner. Normally, cold/wind chill conditions should cause human and/or economic impacts." Note also that this can be based on a local definition, so the conditions required to report an event will vary geographically.
Debris Flow
Excessive Heat: "An Excessive Heat event occurs and is reported in Storm Data whenever heat index values meet or exceed locally/regionally established excessive heat warning thresholds." Note also that this is based on a local definition, so the conditions required to report an event will vary geographically.
Extreme Cold/Wind Chill: "A period of extremely low temperatures or wind chill temperatures reaching or exceeding locally/regionally defined warning criteria (typical value around -35 degrees F or colder). " However, they note that "Normally these conditions should cause significant human and/or economic impact." Note also that this can be based on a local definition, so the conditions required to report an event will vary geographically.
Frost: Borderline, but "A surface air temperature of 32 degrees Fahrenheit (F) or lower, or the formation of ice crystals on the ground or other surfaces, for a period of time long enough to cause human or economic impact, during the locally defined growing season." Note also that it must happen during the local growing season, so when it might happen would vary geographically.
Hail: "Hail 3/4 of an inch or larger in diameter will be entered." (Although smaller can also be recorded if it causes an impact: " Hail accumulations of smaller size, which cause property and/or crop damage or casualties, should be entered."
Heat: "A period of heat resulting from the combination of high temperatures (above normal) and relative humidity. A Heat event occurs and is reported in Storm Data whenever heat index values meet or exceed locally/regionally established advisory thresholds." However, less severe can be included if they cause impacts ("If the ambient weather conditions are below heat advisory criteria, a Heat event entry is permissible only if a directly-related fatality occurred due to unseasonably warm weather, and not man-made environments." Note also that this can be based on a local definition, so the conditions required to report an event will vary geographically.
Heavy Snow: "). Snow accumulation meeting or exceeding locally/regionally defined 12 and/or 24 hour warning criteria. This could mean values such as 4, 6, or 8 inches or more in 12 hours or less; or 6, 8, or 10 inches in 24 hours or less" Note also that this can be based on a local definition, so the conditions required to report an event will vary geographically.
High Wind: "Sustained non-convective winds of 35 knots (40 mph) or greater lasting for 1 hour or longer, or gusts of 50 knots (58 mph) or greater for any duration (or otherwise locally/regionally defined). In some mountainous areas, the above numerical values are 43 knots (50 mph) and 65 knots (75 mph), respectively." As a note, though, it sounds like the wind speed is often estimated based on damage: "based on observed structural or tree damage". Note also that this can be based on a local definition, so the conditions required to report an event will vary geographically.
Hurricane/Typhoon: "A tropical cyclone in which the maximum 1-minute sustained surface wind is 64 knots (74 mph) or greater."
Ice Storm: "Ice accretion meeting or exceeding locally/regionally defined warning criteria (typical value is 1/4 or 1/2 inch or more)."
Lake Effect Snow: "Lake-effect snow accumulations meet or exceed locally defined 12 and/or 24 hour
warning criteria (typical values of 6 to 8 inches within 12 hours or 8 to 10 inches within 24 hours)"
Sleet: "Sleet accumulations meeting or exceeding locally/regionally defined warning criteria (typical value is ½ inch or more)" Note also that this can be based on a local definition, so the conditions required to report an event will vary geographically.
Tornado
Tropical Depression
Tropical Storm
Waterspout
Winter Storm: "A winter weather event that has more than one significant hazard
(i.e., heavy snow and blowing snow; snow and ice; snow and sleet; sleet and ice; or snow, sleet
and ice) and meets or exceeds locally/regionally defined 12 and/or 24 hour warning criteria for at
least one of the precipitation elements." Although they note that "Normally, a Winter Storm
would pose a threat to life or property." Note also that this can be based on a local definition, so the conditions required to report an event will vary geographically.
Other notes:
For Drought, it's not clear to me. In the NOAA Storm Events doc, it notes: "Drought is a deficiency of moisture that results in adverse impacts on people, animals, or vegetation over a sizeable area." However, it looks like they mainly gather this from a drought monitoring network (https://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/). We should look into that monitoring network more. If it's based on physical measurements, then listings in Storm Data are probably based on intensity of the event, not societal impacts, even with this note about droughts being based on impacts. It looks like there's more info on the network here. There's also this note: "Drought events of lesser classification should be included if they cause significant impacts to people, animals, or vegetation."
Also for Droughts, this might be interesting to include in the geographic bias section: "For locations east of the Rocky Mountains, drought events should be included in Storm Data for classification of Severe (D2) or higher. For locations including and west of the Rocky Mountains, drought events should be included in Storm Data for classification of Extreme (D3) or higher."
This might be interesting for temporal bias: "Heavy Rain will no longer be acceptable as a means to record low-impact or isolated flood events." This sounds like an example in how a certain type of event would be reported over the existence of the database.
There are some interesting notes on Sneaker Waves, including: "Sneaker waves are a complex weather phenomenon. The technology does not exist to support deterministic sneaker wave forecasting." and " If there are no witnesses to a drowning, it is very hard to establish with certainty that a Sneaker Wave was involved."
For High Wind, it sounds like sometimes the intensity is based on measurements (e.g., from a calibrated instrument) and sometimes it's estimated (based on damage, probably): "The preparer should note in the Storm Data software program whether the High Wind was a measured gust (MG), estimated gust (EG), measured sustained (MS), or estimated sustained (ES)." This could be an example of how expanding networks of instrumental monitors, and improvements in the technology behind those monitors, could change the quality and likelihood of reporting over time (so temporal bias).
The entry for "Blizzard" includes: "Some Winter Storm and Blizzard events may have had sustained or maximum wind gusts that met or exceeded High Wind criteria. Rather than document an additional High Wind event, the Storm Data preparer should just mention the time, location, and wind value in the Winter Storm or Blizzard event narrative." Based on this, if you sum up "High Wind" events, you'd be missing some of the cases that otherwise meet that criteria because they're included in "Blizzard" or "Winter Storm" if they otherwise qualify for that.
Here's another case along those lines: "For Storm Data, coastal flood events that are associated with a storm of tropical origin (e.g., hurricane, typhoon, or tropical storm) should be reported under the Storm Surge/Tide event category, even if the tropical system is hundreds of miles away. All other coastal flooding events should be reported as a Coastal Flood."
For Cold/Wind Chill, there's a note to: "Use this event only if a fatality/injury does not occur during a winter precipitation event", so might miss some cold/wind chill events if they're concurrent with winter precipitation?
Another example along these lines, for Dust Storm: "Dust storms that occur in direct relation to convection should be entered as a Thunderstorm Wind event, including the appropriate wind magnitude, not as a Dust Storm entry."
Another example: "The High Wind event name will not be used for severe local storms or winter storm events. These events should be included in the Thunderstorm Wind and Winter Storm categories, respectively" and "On occasion, a convective line with no lightning, embedded within an area with a tight surface pressure gradient, will result in widespread wind gusts of 50 knots (58 mph) or higher. In these cases, the Thunderstorm Wind event will be used, rather than a High Wind event. " and "Tropical cyclones can move well inland and create damaging high winds. In these situations it may be difficult to determine the event type to use. Inland offices should use either tropical or wind event type based on the products issued during the event. The Storm Data event type would be Hurricane, Tropical Storm, or Tropical Depression if Hurricane Local Statements were issued during the event (or, in the case of a Tropical Depression, would have been issued). The event type would be Strong Wind or High Wind if a wind advisory or high wind warning were issued for a tropical cyclone or the remnants of a cyclone that moved into the area."
From looking through this, there are definitely different standards for reporting different types of events, and we might want to use some as examples for pathways for hazard bias.
First, there's some documentation about in general what's included:
So, it's not capturing every case of something that occurs, but more focusing on things that are unusual (snow in Florida, record-breaking events) and things that impact humans (loss of life, etc.). Further, for some things (record-breaking temperatures, for example), based on this, they're maybe only recorded if they come along with another event.
This guidance depends on event type, though, because later that say:
So it sounds like they are trying to catch every tornado. I think this would create hazard bias, right? The probability of an event being recorded if it happens would be higher for tornadoes than other types of events, based on this standard.
Some event-specific notes:
Related to probability of a report being included at all:
Events that only are included based on their impacts, noteworthiness, or public interest:
Events that are recorded based on their intensity (or having happened at all):
Other notes: