---------------------PROCTOLOGY----------------------------------- -----------------------PILES-----------------
Summary:-
PILES also called Hemorrhoids are swollen veins in your anus and lower rectum, similar to varicose veins. PILES are usually caused by straining during bowel movements. Nearly three out of four adults will have hemorrhoids from time to time. It has a number of causes, but often the cause is unknown. It can develop inside the rectum (internal hemorrhoids) or under the skin around the anus (external hemorrhoids) and Thrombosed hemorrhoids. Piles, arise from a cushion of dilated arteriovenous blood vessels and connective tissue in the anal canal that may abnormally enlarge or protrude. Hemorrhoids are divided into three categories: internal ,external or mixed. PILES are caused by increased straining or intra-abdominal pressure (e.g., due to constipation, pregnancy, or extended periods of sitting). Patients may present with prolapse, rectal bleeding, pain, and pruritus.
CAUSES:-
The veins around your anus tend to stretch under pressure and may bulge or swell. Hemorrhoids can develop from increased pressure in the lower rectum due to:
Symptoms :-
Signs and symptoms of Piles usually depend on the type of Piles.
External hemorrhoids:-
These are under the skin around your anus. Signs and symptoms might include:
Internal hemorrhoids :-
Internal hemorrhoids lie inside the rectum. You usually can't see or feel them, and they rarely cause discomfort. But straining or irritation when passing stool can cause:
Thrombosed hemorrhoids :-
If blood pools in an external hemorrhoid and forms a clot (thrombus), it can result in:
TREATMENT:-
Diet: Piles can occur due to straining during bowel movements. Excessive straining is the result of constipation. A change in diet can help keep the stools regular and soft. This involves eating more fiber, such as fruit and vegetables, or primarily eating bran-based breakfast cereals.A doctor may also advise the person with piles to increase their water consumption. It is best to avoid caffeine.
Body weight: Losing weight may help reduce the incidence and severity of piles.To prevent piles, doctors also advise exercising and avoiding straining to pass stools. Exercising is one of the main therapies for piles.
Several medicinal options are available to make symptoms more manageable for an individual with piles.
Over-the-counter (OTC) medications: Medications include painkillers, ointments, creams, and pads, and can help soothe redness and swelling around the anus.OTC remedies do not cure piles but can help the symptoms. Do not use them for more than 7 days in a row, as they can cause further irritation of the area and thinning of the skin. Do not use two or more medications at the same time unless advised to by a medical professional.
Corticosteroids: These can reduce inflammation and pain.
Laxatives: The doctor may prescribe laxatives if a person with piles suffers from constipation. These can help the person pass stools more easily and reduce pressure on the lower colon.
Around 1 in 10 people with piles will end up needing surgery.
Banding: The doctor places an elastic band around the base of the pile, cutting off its blood supply. After a few days, hemorrhoid falls off. This is effective for treating all hemorrhoids of less than grade IV status.
Sclerotherapy: Medicine is injected to make the hemorrhoid shrink. Hemorrhoid eventually shrivels up. This is effective for grade II and III hemorrhoids and is an alternative to banding.
Infrared coagulation: Also referred to as infrared light coagulation, a device is used to burn the hemorrhoid tissue. This technique is used to treat grade I and II hemorrhoids.
Hemorrhoidectomy: The excess tissue that is causing the bleeding is surgically removed. This can be done in various ways and may involve a combination of a local anesthetic and sedation, a spinal anesthetic, or a general anesthetic. This type of surgery is the most effective for completely removing piles, but there is a risk of complications, including difficulties with passing stools, as well as urinary tract infections.
Hemorrhoid stapling: Blood flow is blocked to the hemorrhoid tissue. This procedure is usually less painful than hemorrhoidectomy. However, this procedure can lead to an increased risk of hemorrhoid recurrence and rectal prolapse, in which part of the rectum pushes out of the anus.
-----------------------CONSTIPATION----------------SUMMARY:-
Chronic constipation is infrequent bowel movements or difficult passage of stools that persists for several weeks or longer. It is generally described as having fewer than three bowel movements a week. Constipation occurs when a person has difficulty emptying the large bowel. It’s defined as having hard, dry bowel movements or going fewer than three times a week. Though occasional constipation is very common, some people experience chronic constipation that can interfere with their ability to go about their daily tasks. Chronic constipation may also cause people to strain excessively in order to have a bowel movement.
CAUSES:-
Low fiber foods include:
- high-fat foods, such as cheese, meat, and eggs
- highly processed foods, such as white bread
- fast foods, chips, and other premade foods
Symptoms:-
TREATMENT:-
Laxatives can improve symptoms in the short-term, but people should use them with care and only when necessary because some laxatives can have severe adverse effects.
Fiber supplements: Also known as bulk-forming laxatives, these may be the safest option. FiberCon is one example. People should take these with plenty of water.
Stimulants: These cause the muscles in the intestines to contract rhythmically. Senokot is one example.
Lubricants: These help the stool move smoothly through the colon. One example is mineral oil (Fleet).
Stool softeners: These moisten the stool. Examples include Colace and Surfak.
Osmotics: These draw water into the colon to hydrate the stool and ease movement. Saline laxatives are a type of osmotic.
Neuromuscular agents: These include opioid antagonists and 5-HT4 agonists. They work at specific receptors to regulate movement through the gut
If constipation does not respond to treatment or if there are other symptoms, an abdominal imaging study such as a CT scan, MRI scan, or X-ray to see if there is a blockage due to an underlying disease process in the gut.
-----------------------FISTULA---------------------------------------SUMMARY:-
A fistula is an abnormal connection between two hollow spaces such as blood vessels, intestines, or other hollow organs. Fistulas are usually caused by injury or surgery, but they can also result from an infection or inflammation. Fistulas are generally a disease condition, but they may be surgically created for therapeutic reasons. A fistula is a tunnel that runs from inside the anus the hole your body uses to get rid of solid waste to somewhere in the skin around it. It usually follows an infection that didn’t heal the right way. Fistulas form when inflammation causes sores or ulcers to form on the inside wall of the intestine or nearby organs. These ulcers can extend through the entire thickness of the bowel wall, creating a tunnel to drain the pus from the infected area. An abscess, or a collection of pus, can also cause a fistula to form.
CAUSES:-
Inside your anus are several glands that make fluid. Sometimes they get blocked or clogged. When that happens a bacteria buildup can create a swollen pocket of infected tissue and liquid. Doctors call this an abscess. If you don’t treat the abscess it’ll grow. Eventually, it’ll make its way to the outside and punch a hole in the skin somewhere near your anus so the gunk inside it can drain. The fistula is the tunnel that connects the gland to that opening. Most of the time an abscess causes a fistula. It’s rare but they can also come from conditions like sexually transmitted diseases or an ongoing illness that affects your bowels.
other causes are -
SYMPTOMS:-
Patients can have different symptoms depending on which parts of the body are connected by the fistula.
Fistula between the small and large intestine
Fistula between the intestine and the bladder
Fistula between the intestine and the vagina
Fistula from the intestine to the skin
You can also notice
Treatment:-
Surgery is usually necessary to treat an anal fistula as they usually do not heal by themselves.
Sometimes you may need to have an initial examination of area under general anaesthetic to determine best treatment
SUMMARY:-
An anal fissure is a small tear in the thin, moist tissue (mucosa) that lines the anus. An anal fissure may occur when you pass hard or large stools during a bowel movement. Anal fissures typically cause pain and bleeding with bowel movements. You also may experience spasms in the ring of muscle at the end of your anus (anal sphincter). Anal fissures are very common in young infants but can affect people of any age. The crack in the skin causes severe pain and some bright red bleeding during and after bowel movements. At times the fissure can be deep enough to expose the muscle tissue underneath. An anal fissure usually isn’t a serious condition. It can affect people of all ages and it’s often seen in infants and young children since constipation is a common problem in these age groups.
In most cases, the tear heals on its own within four to six weeks. In cases where the fissure persists beyond eight weeks, it’s considered chronic. Certain treatments can promote healing and help relieve discomfort, including stool softeners and topical pain relievers. If an anal fissure doesn’t improve with these treatments you may need surgery..
CAUSES:
Anal fissure most often occurs when passing large or hard stools. Chronic constipation or frequent diarrhea can also tear the skin around your anus. Other common causes include:
Symptoms:-
TREATMENT:-
You can treat an anal fissure at home by:
PREVENTIVE MEASURES:--
SUMMARY:-
A hernia occurs when an internal organ or other body part protrudes through the wall of muscle or tissue that normally contains it. Most hernias occur within the abdominal cavity, between the chest and the hips.
The most common forms of hernia are:
Inguinal hernia:
Femoral hernia:
Umbilical hernia:
Fatty tissue or part of the intestine pushes through the abdomen near the navel (belly button).
Other types of hernias include:
Of all hernias that occur:
CAUSES:-
SYMPTOMS:-
More symptoms of a hernia include:
TREATMENT:-
Hernias usually do not get better on their own and surgery may be the only way to repair them.
In the case of an umbilical hernia in a child, surgery may be recommended if the hernia is large or if it has not healed by the age of 4–5 years old. By this age, a child can usually avoid surgical complications.
If an adult has an umbilical hernia, surgery is usually recommended because the condition will not likely improve on its own and the risk of complications is higher.
One of three types of hernia surgery can be performed:
Asthma
Overview:
Asthma is a condition in which your airways narrow and swell and may produce extra mucus. This can make breathing difficult and trigger coughing, a whistling sound (wheezing) when you breathe out, and shortness of breath. Severe asthma can cause trouble talking or being active. You might hear your doctor call it a chronic respiratory disease. Some people refer to asthma as bronchial asthma.
It’s the most common chronic condition among American children: 1 child out of every 12 has asthma
Asthma can occur in many different ways and for many different reasons, but the triggers are often the same. They include airborne pollutants, viruses, pet dander, mold, and cigarette smoke.
Asthma is the most common chronic condition in children. It can develop at any age, but it is slightly more common in children than in adults. According to the American Lung Association, some common triggers of childhood asthma include:
In some cases, asthma may improve as the child reaches adulthood. For many people, however, it is a lifelong condition.
Asthma can develop at any age, including during adulthood. Some factors that affect the risk of developing asthma in adulthood include:
Occupational asthma
Occupational asthma results from exposure to an allergen or irritant present in the workplace. In the following occupations, irritants can trigger asthma symptoms:
This type of asthma occurs in response to allergens that are only in the surrounding environment at certain times of the year. For example, cold air in the winter or pollen in the spring or summer may trigger symptoms of seasonal asthma. People with seasonal asthma still have the condition for the rest of the year, but they usually do not experience symptoms.
Causes:
Health professionals do not know exactly what causes asthma, but genetic and environmental factors both seem to play significant roles.
A number of factors are thought to increase your chances of developing asthma. They include:
Symptoms:
Asthma symptoms vary from person to person. You may have infrequent asthma attacks, have symptoms only at certain times — such as when exercising — or have symptoms all the time.
Diagnosis:
A doctor will ask the person about their symptoms, their family medical history, and their personal medical history. They will also carry out a physical examination, and they may conduct some other tests.
Physical exam: Your doctor will listen to your breathing with a stethoscope. You may also be given a skin test to look for signs of an allergic reaction, such as hives or eczema. Allergies increase your risk of asthma.
Lung Function Tests: These asthma tests see how well your lungs work.
Spirometry: This simple breathing test measures how much air you blow out and how fast.
Chest X-Ray: By viewing an X-ray of your lungs, your doctor can see if asthma is likely to be causing your symptoms.
Sinuses: Your doctor may order a special sinus X-ray, called a CT scan, to examine your sinuses if they think you have an infection. If you have sinusitis, you will be treated with antibiotics for at least 10 to 12 days. Treating sinusitis may help prevent asthma symptoms.
Treatment:
There is no cure for asthma, but symptoms can be controlled with effective asthma treatment and management. This involves taking your medications as directed and learning to avoid triggers that cause your asthma symptoms.
Treatments for asthma fall into three primary categories:
Your doctor will recommend one treatment or combination of treatments based on:
Taking steps to reduce your exposure to asthma triggers is a key part of asthma control. To reduce your exposure, you should:
Bronchitis is when the tubes that carry air to your lungs, called the bronchial tubes, get inflamed and swollen. You end up with a nagging cough and mucus. Bronchitis can be acute or chronic.
Acute bronchitis develops from a cold or other respiratory infection and often improves within a few days without lasting effects. Chronic bronchitis is a more serious condition that develops over time rather than striking suddenly. It’s characterized by recurrent episodes of bronchitis that last for several months or years.
The constant inflammation in the lining of the bronchial tubes causes excessive amounts of sticky mucus to build up in the airways. This restricts the amount of airflow going into and out of the lungs. The blockage in airflow gets worse over time, resulting in breathing difficulties and increased mucus production in the lungs.
The cause of chronic bronchitis is usually long-term exposure to irritants that damage your lungs and airways. Acute bronchitis is usually caused by viruses, typically the same viruses that cause colds and flu (influenza). Antibiotics don't kill viruses, so this type of medication isn't useful in most cases of bronchitis.
Chronic bronchitis causes include:
Factors that increase your risk of bronchitis include:
Signs and symptoms of both acute and chronic bronchitis include:
However, bronchitis is not the only condition that causes a cough. A cough that refuses to go away may be a sign of asthma, pneumonia, or many other conditions. Anyone with a persistent cough should see a doctor for a diagnosis.
During the first few days of illness, it can be difficult to distinguish the signs and symptoms of bronchitis from those of a common cold.A doctor will carry out a physical examination, using a stethoscope to listen for unusual sounds in the lungs.
Although there’s no cure for chronic bronchitis, the disease can be managed with medical treatment and lifestyle adjustments, especially when a diagnosis is made early on. Don’t be surprised if your doctor simply recommends rest and lots of fluids. About acute bronchitis will often fade away on its own. Letting your body rest and drinking plenty of fluids may help it disappear more quickly.
The symptoms of chronic bronchitis may resolve or improve for a while. However, they will come back or become worse again, especially if there is exposure to smoke or other triggers.
Options that may help include:
It is not always possible to prevent acute or chronic bronchitis, but several things can reduce the risk.
These include:
Overview:
Pneumonia is a lung infection that can range from mild to so severe that you have to go to the hospital. Bacteria, viruses, and fungi cause it.
The infection causes inflammation in the air sacs in your lungs, which are called alveoli. The alveoli fill with fluid or pus, making it difficult to breathe.
Infants younger than age 2 and people over age 65 are at higher risk. That’s because their immune systems might not be strong enough to fight it. In the United States (U.S.), around 1 million people are treated in the hospital for pneumonia each year, and around 50,000 die from the disease.
The germs that cause pneumonia are contagious. This means they can spread from person to person.
Both viral and bacterial pneumonia can spread to others through inhalation of airborne droplets from a sneeze or cough. You can also get these types of pneumonia by coming into contact with surfaces or objects that are contaminated with pneumonia-causing bacteria or viruses.
Causes:
There are several types of infectious agents that can cause pneumonia.
Viral pneumonia is usually milder and can improve in one to three weeks without treatment.
Fungal pneumonia: Fungi from soil or bird droppings can cause pneumonia. They most often cause pneumonia in people with weakened immune systems.
Pneumonia symptoms can be mild to life-threatening. They can include:
Symptoms can vary depending on other underlying conditions and the type of pneumonia.
Diagnosis:
Your doctor will start by asking about your medical history and doing a physical exam, including listening to your lungs with a stethoscope to check for abnormal bubbling or crackling sounds that suggest pneumonia.Depending on the severity of your symptoms and your risk for complications, your doctor may also order one or more of these tests:Depending on the severity of your symptoms and your risk for complications, your doctor may also order one or more of these tests:
Treatment depends on the type and severity of the pneumonia.
If it becomes severe, you may have to stay in the hospital for treatment. While you’re there, your doctor will probably give you fluids or antibiotics through an IV tube. You may even need oxygen therapy or breathing treatments.
Pneumonia prevention
In many cases, pneumonia can be prevented.
The first line of defense against pneumonia is to get vaccinated. There are several vaccines that can help prevent pneumonia.
In addition to vaccination, there are other things you can to avoid pneumonia:
Overview:
Tuberculosis (TB) is a potentially serious infectious disease that mainly affects your lungs. The bacteria that cause tuberculosis are spread from one person to another through tiny droplets released into the air via coughs and sneezes. A person may develop TB after inhaling Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) bacteria. A person may never experience symptoms and be unaware that they have the infection. There is also no risk of passing on a latent infection to another person. The risk of developing active TB is higher in:
Causes:
Tuberculosis is caused by bacteria that spread from person to person through microscopic droplets released into the air. This can happen when someone with the untreated, active form of tuberculosis coughs, speaks, sneezes, spits, laughs, or sings.
The risk of getting pulmonary TB is highest for people who are in close contact with those who have TB. This includes being around family or friends with TB or working in places such as the following that often house people with TB:
People also at risk for developing pulmonary TB disease are:
Symp risk for getting pulmonary TB is highest for people who are in close contact with those who have TB. This includes being around family or friends with TB or working in places such as the following that often house people with TB:
People also at risk for developing pulmonary TB disease are:
if you have tuberculosis, you may not have any symptoms. That’s because the germs that cause this illness can live in your body without making you sick. In fact, most people who get infected with TB are able to fight the germs before they spread. Doctors call this “latent TB” infection.
But if the germs begin to multiply, you’ll become sick with tuberculosis. Doctors call this “active TB.”
Diagnosis:
During the physical exam, your doctor will check your lymph nodes for swelling and use a stethoscope to listen carefully to the sounds your lungs make while you breathe. Two tests can show whether TB bacteria are present:
However, these cannot indicate whether TB is active or latent. To test for active TB disease, the doctor may recommend a sputum test and a chest X-ray. Everyone with TB needs treatment, regardless of whether the infection is active or latent.
Treatment:
With the proper treatment, tuberculosis (TB, for short) is almost always curable. Medications are the cornerstone of tuberculosis treatment. But treating TB takes much longer than treating other types of bacterial infections.
For active tuberculosis, you must take antibiotics for at least six to nine months. The exact drugs and length of treatment depend on your age, overall health, possible drug resistance, and the infection's location in the body.
If you have drug-resistant TB, a combination of antibiotics called fluoroquinolones and injectable medications It is essential to complete the full course of treatment, even if symptoms go away. If a person stops taking their medication early, some bacteria can survive and become resistant to antibiotics. In this case, the person may go on to develop drug-resistant TB.
Ways of preventing TB from infecting others include:
In some countries, children receive an anti-TB vaccination — the Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) vaccine — as part of a regular immunization program.
However, experts in the U.S. do not recommend BCG inoculation for most people unless they have a high risk of TB. Some of the reasons include a low risk of infection in the country and a high likelihood that the vaccine will interfere with any future TB skin tests.
If you have active TB of the lungs, you can infect other people. For that reason, your doctor will tell you to stay home during the first few weeks of treatment, until you’re no longer contagious. During that time, you should avoid public places and people with weakened immune systems, like young children, the elderly, and people with HIV. You’ll have to wear a special mask if you have visitors or need to go to the doctor’s office.
-------------------Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease(COPD)----------------------Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease(COPD)
Overview:
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, commonly referred to as COPD, is a group of progressive lung diseases. It is a long-term lung condition that makes it hard for you to breathe.
Although you can’t reverse the lung damage, medication, and lifestyle changes can help you manage the symptoms. Chronic bronchitis and emphysema both can result in COPD. A COPD diagnosis means you may have one of these lung-damaging diseases or symptoms of both.
Emphysema is the breakdown of the walls of the tiny air sacs (alveoli) at the end of the bronchial tubes, in the “bottom” of the lung.
COPD affects nearly 16 million Americans or about 6% of the U.S. population.
Causes:
Smoking tobacco causes up to 90% of COPD cases. About 90 percent of people who have COPD are smokers or former smokers. Other causes include:
Symptoms:
COPD symptoms often don't appear until significant lung damage has occurred, and they usually worsen over time, particularly if smoking exposure continues. At first, symptoms of COPD can be quite mild. You might mistake them for a cold.
Early symptoms include:
As the lungs become more damaged, you may experience:
Diagnosis:
Finding out whether you have COPD can take several steps. This includes talking with your doctor and getting tests, many of which are straightforward and painless. When you visit the doctor, be sure to mention all of your symptoms. Tell your doctor if:
Stethoscope: You may see your doctor wearing one around her neck. She will place the instrument on your chest to listen for anything unusual such as wheezing. Based on what she hears, she may recommend more tests.
Spirometry: Spirometry is a noninvasive test to assess lung function. During the test, you’ll take a deep breath and then blow into a tube connected to the spirometer
Chest X-ray: This creates an image of your chest, including your heart, lungs, and blood vessels. This shows whether there are problems in the lungs, including other diseases such as pneumonia, cancer, and heart failure
Arterial Blood Gas: An arterial blood gas test involves taking a blood sample from an artery to measure your blood oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other important levels.
Treatment:
The goal of treating COPD is to help you breathe easier and get you back to your regular activities. Your doctor has a number of options to choose from. Your healthcare team may include a lung specialist (pulmonologist) and physical and respiratory therapists.
Medication: medications work quickly to relax the muscles around your airways and ease symptoms like coughing and shortness of breath. You take them through an inhaler. The effects last for about 4 to 6 hours. You use them only when you have symptoms, or before you exercise.
Oxygen therapy: If your blood oxygen level is too low, you can receive supplemental oxygen through a mask or nasal cannula to help you breathe better. A portable unit can make it easier to get around.
Steroids: These bring down the swelling in your airways. You usually breathe them in through an inhaler. Inhaled steroids can help if you have many COPD flare-ups. You might take steroids as a pill if your symptoms get worse.
Surgery: Surgery is reserved for severe COPD or when other treatments have failed, which is more likely when you have a form of severe emphysema.
One type of surgery is called bullectomy. During this procedure, surgeons remove large, abnormal air spaces (bullae) from the lungs.
Another is lung volume reduction surgery, which removes damaged upper lung tissue.
Lung transplantation is an option in some cases.
Antibiotics: An infection can make your COPD symptoms worse. Your doctor will give you antibiotics to kill the bacteria and treat the infection.
Take all the medicine you're prescribed. If you stop taking the antibiotics too early, the infection could come back.
Lifestyle Changes
Certain lifestyle changes may also help alleviate your symptoms or provide relief.
Cigarette smoke is the leading cause of COPD, and it can make the disease worse. It may not be easy for you to quit, but there are many ways to get help. Ask your doctor about nicotine replacement, medicine, and counseling.
Talk to a dietitian: Get the nutrition your body needs. Work with your doctor or dietician to create a healthy eating plan.
Exercise. This is also important when you have COPD. It strengthens the muscles that help you breathe.
Your doctor can help you design a fitness program that's safe for you. You'll also learn breathing techniques to help you exercise.
-------------------------SWINE FLU -----------------------------------------------Overview:
H1N1 flu is also known as swine flu. It's called swine flu because in the past, the people who caught it had direct contact with pigs. Swine flu can affect both pigs and humans. It is a respiratory disease that results from an influenza A virus.
In 2009, H1N1 was spreading fast around the world, so the World Health Organization called it a pandemic. It continues to spread during flu season like other strains of the flu. Like other strains of the flu, H1N1 is highly contagious, allowing it to spread quickly from person to person. A simple sneeze can cause thousands of germs to spread through the air. The virus can linger on tables and surface areas like doorknobs, waiting to be picked up.
Causes:
Swine flu is caused by a strain of influenza virus that usually only infects pigs. Unlike typhus, which can be transmitted by lice or ticks, the transmission usually occurs from person to person, not animal to person.
You can’t catch swine flu from eating properly cooked pork products
Swine farmers and veterinarians have the highest risk of exposure to true swine flu because they work with and are near pigs.
Influenza complications include:
The signs and symptoms of swine flu are similar to those of infections caused by other flu strains and can include:
Diagnosis:
To diagnose flu, including swine flu, your doctor will likely conduct a physical exam, look for signs and symptoms of influenza, and possibly order a test that detects influenza viruses.
Your doctor can make a diagnosis by sampling fluid from your body. To take a sample, your doctor or a nurse may swab your nose or throat.
The swab will be analyzed using various genetic and laboratory techniques to identify the specific type of virus.
Some of the same antiviral drugs that are used to treat seasonal flu also work against H1N1 swine flu. Most cases of swine flu don’t require medication for treatment. You don’t need to see a doctor unless you’re at risk of developing medical complications from the flu. You should focus on relieving your symptoms and preventing the spread of the H1N1 to other people.
Antibiotics won't do anything for you. That’s because the flu is caused by a virus, not bacteria. Over-the-counter pain remedies and cold and flu medications can help relieve aches, pains, and fever. Don't give aspirin to children under age 18 because of the risk of Reye’s syndrome. Make sure that over-the-counter cold medications do not have aspirin before giving them to children.
If you develop any type of flu, these measures may help ease your symptoms:
The best way to prevent swine flu is to get a yearly flu vaccination. Other easy ways to prevent swine flu include:
CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE
Summary:-
Chronic kidney disease (CKD), also called chronic kidney failure it describes the gradual loss of kidney function. Your kidneys filter wastes and excess fluids from your blood, which are then excreted in your urine. When chronic kidney disease reaches an advanced stage, dangerous levels of fluid, electrolytes, and wastes can build up in your body. In the early stages of chronic kidney disease, you may have few signs or symptoms. Chronic kidney disease may not become apparent until your kidney function is significantly impaired.
Causes:-
The two main causes of chronic kidney disease are diabetes and high blood pressure, which are responsible for up to two-thirds of the cases. Diabetes happens when your blood sugar is too high, causing damage to many organs in your body, including the kidneys and heart, as well as blood vessels, nerves and eyes
It also occurs when a disease or condition impairs kidney function, causing kidney damage to worsen over several months or year
Symptoms:-
Treatment:-
Treatment can be merely classified four main categories:-
ØMedical procedure
ØSelf-care
ØMedications
ØSurgery
Medical procedure:-
1. Peritoneal dialysis -
A home-based therapy that uses the natural lining of the abdomen as a filter to clean the blood when the kidneys can no longer do so.
2. Hemofiltration -
Using filters outside the body to clean the blood when the kidneys are injured.
3. Dialysis –
Using a machine to clean the blood when the kidneys can no longer do so.
SELF CARE:-
Low protein diet :
A diet that reduces the consumption of meats, fish, and cheese used to treat certain kidney and metabolic diseases.
MEDICATION:-
SURGERY:-
Kidney transplantation
Surgical replacement of a diseased kidney with one from a living or deceased donor.
---------------------KIDNEY STONE (nephrolithiasis)-------------------------Summary:-
Kidneys remove waste and fluid from your blood to make urine. Sometimes, when you have too much of certain wastes and not enough fluid in your blood, these wastes can build up and stick together in your kidneys. These clumps of waste are called kidney stones also called nephrolithiasis. Kidney stones are hard deposits of minerals and acid salts that stick together in concentrated urine. They can be painful when passing through the urinary tract, but usually don't cause permanent damage. The most common symptom is severe pain, usually in the side of the abdomen, that's often associated with nausea.
Treatment includes pain relievers and drinking lots of water to help pass the stone. Medical procedures may be required to remove or break up larger stones.
Causes:-
Symptoms:-
Treatment:-
The best way to prevent most kidney stones is to drink enough water every day.
Small stones with minimal symptoms:-
Most small kidney stones won't require invasive treatment. You may be able to pass a small stone by:
Large stones symptoms:-
Kidney stones that are too large to pass on their own or cause bleeding, kidney damage or ongoing urinary tract infections may require more-extensive treatment. Procedures may include:
ESWL uses sound waves to create strong vibrations (shock waves) that break the stones into tiny pieces that can be passed in your urine. The procedure lasts about 45 to 60 minutes and can cause moderate pain, so you may be under sedation or light anesthesia to make you comfortable.
ESWL can cause blood in the urine, bruising on the back or abdomen, bleeding around the kidney and other adjacent organs, and discomfort as the stone fragments pass through the urinary tract.
You will receive general anesthesia during the surgery and be in the hospital for one to two days while you recover. Your doctor may recommend this surgery if ESWL is unsuccessful.
Once the stone is located, special tools can snare the stone or break it into pieces that will pass in your urine. Your doctor may then place a small tube (stent) in the ureter to relieve swelling and promote healing. You may need general or local anesthesia during this procedure.
Hyperparathyroidism sometimes occurs when a small, benign tumor forms in one of your parathyroid glands or you develop another condition that leads these glands to produce more parathyroid hormone. Removing the growth from the gland stops the formation of kidney stones. Or your doctor may recommend treatment of the condition that's causing your parathyroid gland to overproduce the hormone.
-----------------URINARY TRACT INFECTION ( UTI ) -----------------------Summary:-
A urinary tract infection (UTI) also called Bladder Infection is an infection in any part of your urinary system. Most infections involve the lower urinary tract the bladder and the urethra. Women are at greater risk of developing a UTI than are men. Infection limited to your bladder can be painful and annoying. However, serious consequences can occur if a UTI spreads to your kidneys. A bladder infection may cause pelvic pain, increased urge to urinate, pain with urination, and blood in the urine.
UTIs are usually classified as upper or lower according to where they occur along the urinary tract,
Causes:-
Urinary tract infections typically occur when bacteria enter the urinary tract through the urethra and begin to multiply in the bladder. Women with diabetes may be at higher risk because their weakened immune systems make them less able to fight off infections.
The most common UTIs occur mainly in women and affect the bladder and urethra.
Sexual intercourse may lead to cystitis, but you don't have to be sexually active to develop it. All women are at risk of cystitis because of their anatomy specifically, the short distance from the urethra to the anus and the urethral opening to the bladder.
Symptoms:-
Urinary tract infections don't always cause signs and symptoms, but when they do they may include:
TREATMENT:-
Summary:-
When your kidneys stop working suddenly, over a very short period of time it is called acute kidney Failure or Acute Kidney failure or Acute Renal failure. It is very serious and requires immediate treatment. Acute kidney failure occurs when your kidneys suddenly become unable to filter waste products from your blood. When your kidneys lose their filtering ability, dangerous levels of wastes may accumulate, and your blood's chemical makeup may get out of balance. Acute kidney failure is most common in people who are already hospitalized, particularly in critically ill people who need intensive care. Acute kidney failure can be fatal and requires intensive treatment. However, acute kidney failure may be reversible. If you're otherwise in good health, you may recover normal or nearly normal kidney function.
CAUSES:-
Acute kidney Failure usually happens when your kidneys are damaged suddenly. The damage that leads to failure may be caused by:
Symptoms:-
Treatment:-
Treatment depends on the type of kidney failure whereas most common treatment is
Your doctor will restrict your diet and the number of liquids you eat and drink. This will reduce the buildup of toxins that the kidneys would normally eliminate. A diet high in carbohydrates and low in protein, salt, and potassium is usually recommended.
Your doctor may prescribe antibiotics to treat or prevent any infections that occur at the same time. Diuretics may help your kidneys eliminate fluid. Calcium and insulin can help you avoid dangerous increases in your blood potassium levels.
You may need dialysis, but it’s not always necessary, and it will likely only be temporary. Dialysis involves diverting blood out of your body into a machine that filters out waste. The clean blood then returns to your body. If your potassium levels are dangerously high, dialysis can save your life. Dialysis is necessary if there are changes in your mental status or if you stop urinating. You may also need dialysis if you develop pericarditis or inflammation of the heart. Dialysis can help eliminate nitrogen waste products from your body.
-----------------------------Neurological Diseases:---------------------- --------------------------Autism------------------------------------Summary:
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complicated condition including problems with communication and behavior. It refers to a broad range of challenges of social skills, repetitive behaviors, speech, and nonverbal communication.
It is defined by a certain set of behaviors and is a “spectrum condition” and each person with autism has a distinct set of strengths and challenges.
Being a neurological and developmental disorder, autism begins in early childhood and lasts throughout a person's life. The symptoms generally appear in the first two years of in-person life.
Treatments and therapies can improve symptoms and the ability to function to live a normal life.
Boys are about four times more likely to develop autism spectrum disorder than girls are.
Causes:
Autism is complex and no two people with autism are exactly the same. So, there are probably many causes of autism. It is also likely that there is not a single cause for autism, rather, it is a result of a combination of causes.
Symptoms:
Autism symptoms are noticeable during early childhood, between 12 and 24 months of age. However, symptoms may also appear earlier or later. The common thread is differences in social skills, communication, and behavior compared with people who aren’t on the spectrum.
Social skills :
Children or adults with autism may not understand or appropriately use spoken language, gestures, eye contact, facial expressions. Other social skills may include an abnormal tone of voice, avoids physical contact, and prefers to be alone.
Communication:
About 40% of kids with autism spectrum disorders don’t talk at all, and between 25% and 30% develop some language skills during infancy but then lose them later.
Delayed speech and language skill, repeating words or phrases, less responsive, mix up pronouns, Flat, robotic speaking voice, or singsong voice.
Patterns of behavior:
Patterns of behavior vary greatly across the autism spectrum. They can include: Repetitive body movements, get upset by minor changes, Staring at lights or spinning objects, fixated interests or preoccupations, and fussy eating habits.
Diagnosis:
Early diagnosis can make a huge difference in the lives of children with autism and their families.
A diagnosis ultimately made based on your description of your child's development, plus careful observations of certain behaviors by your pediatrician, autism experts, medical tests, and your child's history.
As there isn't a specific medical test to determine the disorder, autism specialist may:
If your child needs more tests, you will be guided to a team of ASD specialists - child psychologist, speech-language pathologist, and occupational therapist.
Treatment:
There has been no treatment shown to cure autism, but several interventions have been developed and studied for use with young children. The type of treatment your child receives for autism depends on his individual needs.
These interventions may reduce symptoms, improve cognitive ability and daily living skills, and maximize the ability of the child to function and participate in the community.
The types of therapies can be broken down as below:
Parent’s guide:
Summary:
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is a group of rare neurological diseases that involves nerve cells (neurons) in the brain and spinal cord responsible for controlling voluntary muscle movement like chewing, walking, and talking.
A-myo-trophic comes from the Greek language. "A" means no. "Myo" refers to muscle, and "Trophic" means nourishment – "No muscle nourishment."
Neurons reach from the brain to the spinal cord and from the spinal cord to the muscles throughout the body. The progressive degeneration of the neurons in ALS eventually leads to their demise or wastes away. There are two different types of ALS, sporadic and familial. Sporadic seems to occur at random with no clearly associated risk factors and no family history of the disease. About 5 to 10 percent of all ALS cases are familial, which means that an individual inherits the disease from his or her parents. ALS usually strikes people between the ages of 40 and 70.
Causes:
Researchers still don't know exactly what causes motor neurons to die with ALS. Gene changes, or mutations, are behind 5% to 10% of ALS cases. More than 12 different gene changes have been linked to ALS.
Symptoms:
The initial symptoms of ALS can be quite varied in different people. One person may have trouble grasping a pen or lifting a coffee cup, while another person may experience a change in vocal pitch when speaking. ALS is typically a disease that involves a gradual onset.
Some early symptoms include stumbling, holding items, slurred speech, swallowing problems, muscle cramps, muscle stiffness and twitching in arm, leg, shoulder or tongue.
As ALS gets worse, more muscles and activities are affected. Among the more advanced signs of the disease are weaker muscles, less muscle mass, trouble breathing, more serious chewing and swallowing problems.
Diagnosis:
There is no one test or procedure to ultimately establish the diagnosis of ALS. It is through a clinical examination and series of diagnostic tests, often ruling out other diseases that mimic ALSTests to rule out other conditions might include Physical Exam, Blood & Urine test, spinal tap or lumbar puncture, MRI, Muscle & Nerve test like EMG & Biopsy of muscle.
Treatment:
Treatments can't reverse the damage of ALS, but they can slow the progression of symptoms, prevent complications, and make you more comfortable and independent. Use of approved medications and supportive therapies to help the patient manage the symptoms associated with the disease more effectively.
Medicines: Rilutek & Radicava are given to increase life expectancy and other medicines are advised for the symptoms like cramps, pain, sleeping problems, fatigue & constipation.
Therapies like breathing care, physical, occupational & speech, nutritional, Psychological and social support.
Tips for coping with ALS:
Overview :
Alzheimer’s disease is an irreversible, progressive brain disorder that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills. It involves parts of the brain that control thought, memory, and language and can seriously affect a person’s ability to carry out daily activities. Symptoms usually develop slowly and get worse over time, becoming severe enough to interfere with daily tasks.
Alzheimer's disease accounts for 60 percent to 80 percent of dementia cases.
With late-stage Alzheimer's, individuals lose the ability to carry on a conversation and respond to their environment. It seems likely that changes in the brain may begin a decade or more before memory and other cognitive problems appear.
Causes:
Alzheimer's disease is thought to be caused by the abnormal build-up of proteins in and around brain cells. So far, research has linked the disease with:
Symptoms:
It might start when someone has trouble recalling things that just happened or putting thoughts into words. But over time, the problems get worse. There are three main phases of Alzheimer's: mild, moderate, and severe. Each stage has its own set of symptoms.
Mild Alzheimer's: Less energy, less social activities, Loss of recent memories, Language problems, coordination problems, hard time with everyday tasks, Mood swings, getting lost on familiar routes
Moderate Alzheimer's: Rambling speech, hard time planning or solving problems, Using the right words, Confusion about time or place, Getting angry or upset easily, Trouble sleeping, Delusions, Wandering.
Severe Alzheimer's: Can’t express themselves, remember, or process information, problems with swallowing and control of their bladder and bowels, extreme mood swings, hallucinations, can’t move easily on their own.
Diagnosis:
Doctors use several methods and tools to help determine whether a person who is having memory problems has “possible Alzheimer’s dementia”
Assessing memory problems and other symptoms by Mental status testing, Neuropsychological tests, Interviews with friends and family.
Laboratory tests such as a thyroid disorder or vitamin B-12 deficiency.
Brain-imaging tests most often used are Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), Computerized tomography (CT), Positron emission tomography (PET)
Treatment:
There is no cure for Alzheimer's disease. Once a person starts showing signs – memory loss and problems with learning, judgment, communication, and daily life -- there aren’t any treatments that can stop or reverse them. But there are medicines that can ease some of the symptoms in some people.
Drug therapy: A number of medicines may be prescribed for Alzheimer's disease to help temporarily improve some symptoms like memory, cognitive changes, behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia (BPSD).
Safe and supportive environment: Always keep keys, wallets, mobile phones, and other valuables in the same place at home, so they don't become lost. Keep medications in a secure location. Use a daily checklist to keep track of dosages. Use a calendar or whiteboard in the home to track daily schedules. Keep photographs and other meaningful objects around the house.
Treatments that involve therapies and activities like Cognitive stimulation therapy, Cognitive rehabilitation, Reminiscence and life story work
Prevent Alzheimer's disease:
By identifying and controlling your personal risk factors and leading a brain-healthy lifestyle, you can maximize your chances of lifelong brain health and preserve your cognitive abilities. These steps may prevent the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease and slow down the process of deterioration.
Overview:
A stroke occurs when a blood vessel in the brain ruptures and bleeds, or when there’s a blockage in the blood supply to the brain. The rupture or blockage prevents blood and oxygen from reaching the brain’s tissues. Without oxygen, brain cells and tissue become damaged and begin to die within minutes.
In fact, nearly 800,000 people have a stroke each year. That equates to around one person every 40 seconds.
Stroke is the No. 5 cause of death and a leading cause of disability in the United States.
There are three main types of stroke:
You can treat some conditions that make you more likely to have a stroke. Other things that put you at risk can't be changed:
Lifestyle risk factors:
Medical risk factors:
80 percent of strokes are preventable.
Symptoms:
The range and severity of early stroke symptoms vary considerably, but they share the common characteristic of being sudden. Warning signs may include some or all of the following symptoms:
Diagnosis:
Things will move quickly once you get to the hospital, as your emergency team tries to determine what type of stroke you're having. A number of tests can be done to confirm the diagnosis and determine the cause of the stroke-like blood test, pulse, Clotting time, and measure blood pressure.
According to the CDC, 87 percent of strokes are ischemic strokes.
Treatment:
Treatment depends on the type of stroke: ischemic or hemorrhagic.
Ischemic stroke: treatment of Ischemic stroke focuses on restoring blood flow to the brain.
Hemorrhagic stroke:
For this type of stroke, treatment focuses on controlling bleeding, reducing the pressure in the brain, and stabilizing vital signs, especially blood pressure.
How to prevent a stroke?
Like close cousins, heart disease and stroke share a common lineage. Guidelines on the prevention of stroke suggest that a healthy lifestyle can cut the risk of having one by 80%. No drug, device, or other intervention can come close to doing that.
Summary :
Vertigo is a sensation of spinning dizziness, as though the room or surrounding environment is spinning in circles around the person. Many people use the term to describe a fear of heights, but this is not correct. This feeling may be barely noticeable, or it may be so severe that you find it difficult to keep your balance and do everyday tasks. Attacks of vertigo can develop suddenly and last for a few seconds, or they may last much longer. If you have severe vertigo, your symptoms may be constant and last for several days, making normal life very difficult. Migraines sometimes cause vertigo.
Vertigo is a symptom, not a disease.
Causes:
Conditions that can lead to vertigo include the following:
Vertigo is often triggered by a change in the position of your head. People with vertigo typically describe it as feeling like they are:
Diagnosis:
Your doctor may do a series of tests to determine the cause of your dizziness.
Physical examination: During a physical examination, your doctor will likely look for:
If the cause of your signs and symptoms is difficult to determine, your doctor may order additional testing, such as:
Treatment:
Most cases of vertigo get better without treatment. This is because your brain is able to adapt, at least in part, to the inner ear changes, relying on other mechanisms to maintain balance.
For some, treatment is needed and may include:
Home Remedies:
Some people with vertigo claim that natural or home-based therapies can improve the spinning and dizzy sensations they feel. You should only try home remedies if your doctor gives you the go-ahead.
Repositioning Exercises: Some techniques that are used to reposition crystals in your inner ear can be done at home. Your healthcare provider will give you step-by-step instructions on how to effectively perform these exercises. These are as follows: Epley Maneuver, Semont-Toupet maneuver, Brandt-Daroff exercise, Gingko Biloba.
Dietary Changes: Common culprits that could aggravate vertigo in certain people include Salty foods, Sugary foods, Alcohol, Caffeine. People with migraine-associated vertigo may also need to avoid trigger foods that contain the amino acid tyramine. These may include Smoked meats, Yogurt, Chocolate, Bananas, Ripened cheeses, Nuts, Citrus fruits, Chicken liver, Red wine.
Hydration: Plan to drink extra water during times you tend to become dehydrated. You might find that simply being aware of how much water you’re drinking helps decrease vertigo episodes.
Acupressure: Acupressure applies the same concepts as acupuncture, but it is without the needles. The goal of acupressure is to promote wellness and relaxation. It can help manage vertigo by stimulating pressure points throughout the body. One common method, called the P6 acupressure method, involves an effective pressure point located in the two tendons between the inner forearm and the wrist.
----------------Parkinson's Disease: -----------------------Overview :
Parkinson’s disease is a progressive neurological disorder. The first signs are problems with movement. Symptoms start gradually, sometimes starting with a barely noticeable tremor in just one hand. Over time, other symptoms develop, and some people will have dementia. Most of the symptoms result from a fall in dopamine levels in the brain.
The first step to living well with Parkinson’s disease is to understand the disease and the progression.
In the early stages of Parkinson's disease, your face may show little or no expression. Your arms may not swing when you walk. Your speech may become soft or slurred. Parkinson's disease symptoms worsen as your condition progresses over time.
Causes:
Scientists are not sure what causes Parkinson’s disease. It happens when nerve cells die in the brain. Several factors appear to play a role, including:
Symptoms:
Parkinson's disease signs and symptoms can be different for everyone. Early signs may be mild and go unnoticed. Symptoms often begin on one side of your body and usually remain worse on that side, even after symptoms begin to affect both sides. These earliest signs include:
Diagnosis:
Many people think that the early signs of Parkinson’s are normal signs of aging. For this reason, they may not seek help. However, treatment is more likely to be effective if a person takes it early in the development of Parkinson’s disease. For this reason, it is important to get an early diagnosis if possible. Making an accurate diagnosis of Parkinson’s disease can be complicated. Doctors must carefully weigh symptoms, family history, and other factors to come to a conclusion.
Your doctor may order lab tests, such as blood tests, to rule out other conditions that may be causing your symptoms.
Imaging tests, such as a CAT scan or MRI, may be used to rule out other conditions. A dopamine transporter (DAT) scan may also be used. While these tests don’t confirm Parkinson’s, they can help rule out other conditions and support the doctor’s diagnosis.
Treatment:
Parkinson's disease can't be cured, but medications can help control your symptoms, often dramatically. Adequate rest, exercise, and a balanced diet are important. Speech therapy, occupational therapy, and physical therapy can also help to improve communication and self-care.
Medications: Medications may help you manage problems with walking, movement, and tremor. These medications increase or substitute for dopamine
Surgery: Surgical interventions are reserved for people who don’t respond to medication, therapy, and lifestyle changes. Two primary types of surgery are used to treat Parkinson’s:
Deep brain stimulation: Surgeons implant electrodes in specific parts of the brain. A generator connected to the electrodes sends out pulses to help reduce symptoms.
Pump-delivered therapy: In order to use the pump, your doctor will have to perform a surgical procedure to place the pump near the small intestine.
Lifestyle and home remedies:
Exercise: Exercising may increase your muscle strength, flexibility, and balance. It can also improve your well-being and reduce depression or anxiety. Your doctor may suggest you work with a physical therapist to learn an exercise program that works for you. You may also try exercises such as walking, swimming, gardening, dancing, water aerobics, or stretching.
Yoga: Yoga uses targeted muscle movement to build muscle, increase mobility, and improve flexibility. People with Parkinson’s may notice yoga even helps control tremors in some affected limbs.
Overview :
Migraine is a neurological condition that can cause multiple symptoms. It’s frequently characterized by intense, debilitating headaches, accompanied by nausea, vomiting, and extreme sensitivity to light and sound. Migraine attacks can last for hours to days, and the pain can be so severe that it interferes with your daily activities. A migraine headache is the result of specific physiologic changes that occur within the brain,
According to the American Migraine Association, they affect 36 million Americans or approximately 12 percent of the population.
Migraines can follow an aura of sensory disturbances followed by a severe headache that often appears on one side of the head. They tend to affect people aged 15 to 55 years.
In some cases, people with migraines have specific warning symptoms, or an aura, prior to the onset of their headache. These warning signs can range from flashing lights or a blind spot in one eye to numbness or weakness involving one side of the body.
Causes:
Researchers haven’t identified a definitive cause for migraines. However, they have found some contributing factors that can trigger the condition. Changes in the brainstem and its interactions with the trigeminal nerve, a major pain pathway, might be involved. Some research suggests there could be a heredity factor for migraines, meaning they may run in families.
Migraine triggers:
Symptoms:
Symptoms of migraines can start a while before the headache, immediately before the headache, during the headache, and after the headache.
One or two days before a migraine, you might notice subtle changes that warn of an upcoming migraine, including:
Attack
A migraine usually lasts from 4 to 72 hours if untreated. How often migraines occur varies from person to person. Migraines might occur rarely or strike several times a month.
During a migraine, you might have:
After a migraine attack, you might feel drained, confused, and washed out for up to a day. Some people report feeling elated. The sudden head movement might bring on the pain again briefly.
Diagnosis:
If you have migraines or a family history of migraines, a neurologist will likely diagnose migraines based on your medical history, symptoms, and a physical and neurological examination. Your doctor might want to do blood tests or imaging tests, such as an MRI or CAT scan of the brain. These tests can help ensure there are no other causes for the headache. You may also be asked to keep a headache journal. This can help your doctor identify the things that might cause your migraines.
Treatment:
There is currently no single cure for migraines. Treatment is aimed at preventing a full-blown attack and alleviating the symptoms that occur. Many medications have been designed to treat migraines. Medications used to combat migraines fall into two broad categories:
Your treatment choices depend on the frequency and severity of your headaches, whether you have nausea and vomiting with your headaches, how disabling your headaches are, and other medical conditions you have.
Lifestyle with Migraine:
Migraine patients can play a significant role in managing their headache frequency and severity. Keep track of when migraines occur by using a headache diary or log to track pain levels, triggers, and symptoms. When symptoms of migraine start, try heading to a quiet, darkened room. Close your eyes and rest or take a nap. Place a cool cloth or ice pack wrapped in a towel or cloth on your forehead or at the back of your neck. lifestyle modifications can lessen their impact:
Infectious Disease:
Cholera:
Cholera is a disease caused by bacteria that produce watery diarrhea that can rapidly lead to dehydration. The disease is typically spread through contaminated water. In severe cases, immediate treatment is necessary because death can occur within hours. This can happen even if you were healthy before you caught it.
It is caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholera (V. cholera). These bacteria were discovered in 1883. V. cholera bacteria live in shallow, salty water on microscopic crustaceans. They can also exist as colonies of biofilms that coat the surface of the water, plants, stones, shells, and similar items, and they can live among the eggs of midges, which serve as a reservoir for cholera bacteria.
Due to severe dehydration, fatality rates are high when untreated, especially among children and infants. Cholera was prevalent in the United States in the 1800s, but now it is rare because there are well-developed sanitary systems and living conditions. When traveling to Asia, Africa and some parts of Latin America, however, people need to protect themselves against cholera by having the appropriate vaccinations beforehand.
Causes:
A bacterium called Vibrio cholerae causes cholera infection. The deadly effects of the disease are the result of a toxin the bacteria produces in the small intestine. The toxin causes the body to secrete enormous amounts of water, leading to diarrhea and a rapid loss of fluids and salts (electrolytes).
Contaminated water supplies are the primary source of cholera infection. Uncooked fruits, vegetables, and other foods can also contain the bacteria that cause cholera. It does not usually pass from person to person through casual contact.
Risk factors for cholera include Poor sanitary conditions, Reduced or nonexistent stomach acid, Household exposure, people with type O blood, Raw or undercooked shellfish.
Signs & Symptoms:
Most people exposed to the cholera bacterium (Vibrio cholerae) don't become ill and don't know they've been infected. But because they shed cholera bacteria in their stool for seven to 14 days, they can still infect others through contaminated water.
Other symptoms that may occur, especially with more severe disease, include the following:
Diagnosis:
A doctor may suspect cholera if a patient has severe watery diarrhea, vomiting, and rapid dehydration, especially if they have recently traveled to a place that has a recent history of cholera, or poor sanitation, or if they have recently consumed shellfish. The only way to confirm a diagnosis is to identify the bacteria in a stool sample.
Rapid cholera dipstick tests enable doctors in remote areas to quickly confirm a cholera diagnosis. Quick confirmation helps to decrease death rates at the start of cholera outbreaks and leads to earlier public health interventions for outbreak control.
Treatment:
Severe cases of cholera require intravenous fluid replacement. An adult weighing 70 kilograms will need at least 7 liters of intravenous fluids.
Cholera is often spread through food and because of poor hygiene. Some simple measures can reduce the risk of contracting cholera.
When traveling in areas where the disease is endemic, it is important to:
Individuals should seek medical attention immediately if they experience symptoms such as leg cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea while in a community where the disease exists.
-------------------------------ZIKA VIRUS---------------------Zika Virus
Overview:
Zika virus infection is a mosquito-borne viral infection. It is spread by the Aedes species of mosquito, most commonly Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. Aedes mosquitoes also transmit dengue and chikungunya viruses.
It primarily occurs in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Most people infected with the Zika virus have no signs and symptoms, while others report mild fever, rash, and muscle pain. Other signs and symptoms may include headache, red eyes (conjunctivitis), and a general feeling of discomfort.
The virus causes birth defects in babies born to some infected pregnant women, including microcephaly, where babies are born with underdeveloped heads and brain damage.
Zika virus infections have been reported since the 1950s in parts of Africa and Asia, and in the Pacific islands in 2007. In 2015, the Zika virus spread to Central and South America.
Causes:
When a mosquito bites a person infected with the Zika virus, the virus enters the mosquito. When the infected mosquito then bites another person, the virus enters that person's bloodstream. The virus can also spread to the fetus during pregnancy. Spread of the virus through sexual contact and blood transfusion have been reported.
Factors that put you at greater risk of developing the Zika virus include:
Symptoms:
Only about 20% of persons infected with the Zika virus experience symptoms and the symptoms are usually mild. The symptoms last about 2 to 7 days and include:
Symptoms of Zika are similar to other viruses spread through mosquito bites, like dengue and chikungunya. Zika virus usually remains in the blood of an infected person for about a week. See your doctor or other healthcare providers if you develop symptoms and you live in or have recently traveled to an area with risk of Zika.
Diagnosis:
To diagnose Zika, a doctor or other healthcare provider will ask about any recent travel and any signs and symptoms. They may order blood or urine tests to help determine if you have Zika.
If you are pregnant with no symptoms of Zika virus infection with a history of recent travel to an area with active Zika virus transmission can be offered testing two to 12 weeks after her return.
Following positive, inconclusive, or negative test results, care providers may:
Treatment:
No specific antiviral treatment for the Zika virus exists. Treatment is aimed at relieving symptoms with rest, fluids, and medications to relieve joint pain and fever. No vaccine exists to prevent the Zika virus. But several vaccines are currently in clinical trials.
Zika virus can be passed from a pregnant woman to her fetus. Infection during pregnancy can cause a birth defect called microcephaly and other severe fetal brain defects. It may also cause neurodevelopmental abnormalities like
The virus has caused panic in Brazil since it first appeared there in May 2015. More than 2,100 babies in Brazil have been born with microcephaly or other birth defects linked to Zika. At the time, Brazil and several other nations advised women to postpone pregnancy.
----------------------------EBOLA------------------------------------Overview:
The Ebola virus disease (EVD), previously referred to as Ebola hemorrhagic fever, is a severe and often fatal infection. It is a serious and deadly virus transmitted by animals and humans. It was initially detected in 1976 in Sudan and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Researchers named the disease after the Ebola River. Until recently, Ebola appeared in Africa only.
Ebola is a rare but deadly virus that causes fever, body aches, and diarrhea, and sometimes bleeding inside and outside the body.
As the virus spreads through the body, it damages the immune system and organs. Ultimately, it causes levels of blood-clotting cells to drop. This leads to severe, uncontrollable bleeding. After entering the body, it kills cells, making some of them explode.
It kills up to 90% of people who are infected.
Causes:
Ebola isn’t as contagious, it spreads to people by contact with the skin or bodily fluids of an infected animal, like a monkey, chimp, or fruit bat. Then it moves from person to person the same way. Those who care for a sick person or bury someone who has died from the disease often get it.
Symptoms:
Early on, Ebola can feel like the flu or other illnesses. Symptoms show up 2 to 21 days after infection and usually include:
Additional Ebola symptoms may include
As the disease worsens in severity, symptoms can include bleeding at various sites within or outside of the body. 30% to 50% of cases result in internal and external bleeding 4 to 5 days after the onset of symptoms.
Diagnosis:
The early symptoms of Ebola can closely mimic other diseases like the flu, malaria, and typhoid fever. Doctors may test to rule out other diseases like cholera or malaria.
Blood tests can identify antibodies of the Ebola virus. Tests of tissues also can diagnose Ebola.If you have Ebola, you’ll be isolated from the public immediately to prevent the spread. The person's medical history is also looked at, with a particular interest in whether the person was in contact with possible infected individuals or animals.
Treatment:
The Ebola virus does not have a cure or vaccine at this time. Instead, measures are taken to keep the person as comfortable as possible. Treatment is supportive and typically involves rehydration, nutrition, and medications to manage symptoms (pain, fever, vomiting, etc.).the following medical treatments for Ebola-infected patients:
Individuals can take several precautions to protect against Ebola. These steps include:
Overview:
Dengue is the most common and important arthropod-borne viral (arboviral) illness in humans. It is transmitted by mosquitoes of the genus Aedes, which are widely distributed in subtropical and tropical areas of the world. Millions of cases of dengue infection occur worldwide each year. Dengue fever is most common in Southeast Asia and the western Pacific islands. A virus causes dengue fever, and there is no specific medicine or antibiotic to treat it. For typical dengue fever, the treatment is directed toward relief of the symptoms.
The virus is not contagious and cannot spread directly from person to person. It is mosquito-borne, so there must be a person-to-mosquito-to-another-person pathway. After being bitten by a mosquito carrying the virus, the incubation period for dengue fever ranges from 3 to 15 (usually 5 to 8) days before the signs and symptoms of dengue appear in stages.
Causes:
Dengue fever is caused by any one of four types of dengue viruses spread by mosquitoes that thrive in and near human lodgings. When a mosquito bites a person infected with a dengue virus, the virus enters the mosquito. When the infected mosquito then bites another person, the virus enters that person's bloodstream. Victims of dengue often have contortions due to the intense pain in the joints, muscles, and bones, hence the name breakbone fever.
Previous infection with a dengue fever virus increases your risk of having severe symptoms if you're infected again. If severe, dengue fever can damage the lungs, liver or heart. Blood pressure can drop to dangerous levels, causing shock and, in some cases, death.
Symptoms:
Many people, especially children and teens, may experience no signs or symptoms during a mild case of dengue fever. When symptoms do occur, they usually begin four to seven days after you are bitten by an infected mosquito.
A life-threatening emergency — include:
Diagnosis:
Doctors can diagnose dengue infection with a blood test to check for the virus or antibodies to it. If you become sick after traveling to a tropical area, let your doctor know. This will allow your doctor to evaluate the possibility that your symptoms were caused by a dengue infection.
Treatment:
Dengue is a virus, so there is no specific treatment or cure. However, an intervention can help, depending on how severe the disease is. For milder forms, treatment includes:
Preventing dehydration: A high fever and vomiting can dehydrate the body. The person should drink clean water, ideally bottled rather than tap water. Rehydration salts can also help replace fluids and minerals.
Painkillers, such as Tylenol or paracetamol: These can help lower fever and ease the pain.
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as aspirin or ibuprofen, are not advised, as they can increase the risk of internal bleeding.
Prevention
The best way to prevent the disease is to prevent bites by infected mosquitoes, particularly if you are living in or traveling to a tropical area. To protect yourself:
Overview:
Chickenpox is an infection caused by the varicella-zoster virus. It causes an itchy rash with small, fluid-filled blisters. Chickenpox is very contagious and mainly affects kids, but adults can get it, too. Over the course of several days, the blisters pop and start to leak. Then they crust and scab over before finally healing. It’s very rare to have the chickenpox infection more than once. And since the chickenpox vaccine was introduced in the mid-1990s, cases have declined. The infection will have to be in your body for around seven to 21 days before the rash and other symptoms develop.
You start to be contagious to those around you up to 48 hours before the skin rash starts to occur. The infection will have to be in your body for around seven to 21 days before the rash and other symptoms develop. You start to be contagious to those around you up to 48 hours before the skin rash starts to occur.
Causes:
Chickenpox is caused by a virus called varicella-zoster. People become infected after being in contact with an infected child or adult.
Chickenpox is one of the most infectious diseases. People who have never had chickenpox and have never been vaccinated are at the highest risk of infection.
Chickenpox is normally a mild disease. But it can be serious and can lead to complications including:
Symptoms:
Before the rash appears, there will be:
After the rash appears, there will be:
Diagnose:
Doctors generally diagnose chickenpox based on the rash.
If there's any doubt about the diagnosis, chickenpox can be confirmed with laboratory tests, including blood tests or culture of lesion samples. Tell your doctor right away if you are pregnant and have been exposed to chickenpox.
Treatment:
Most people diagnosed with chickenpox will be advised to manage their symptoms while they wait for the virus to pass through their system. Parents will be told to keep children out of school and daycare to prevent spread of the virus. Infected adults will also need to stay home. Your doctor may prescribe an antihistamine to relieve itching. But for the most part, the disease is allowed to run its course.
A vaccine is available for varicella. For children, 2 doses of the varicella vaccine are given, one at 12 to 15 months and one at age 4 to 6 years. These are 90 percent effective at preventing chickenpox.
During pregnancy, there is a slightly higher risk of developing pneumonia with chickenpox. There is also a danger of passing the infection on to the fetus.
If infection occurs during the first 20 weeks of pregnancy, there is a higher risk of fetal varicella syndrome, which can lead to scarring, eye problems, brain drainage, and shortened arms or legs.
If the infection happens later in pregnancy, varicella may be transmitted directly to the fetus and the baby can be born with varicella.
If you become exposed to varicella during pregnancy, whether chickenpox or shingles, it is important to talk to a doctor right away.
---------------------------------MENTAL HEALTH----------------------------- ------------------------CLINICAL DEPRESSION-------------------------------------------Clinical Depression:
Summary:
Depression is a mental disorder characterized by at least two weeks of low mood that is present across most situations. It is often accompanied by low self-esteem, loss of interest in normally enjoyable activities, low energy, and pain without a clear cause. Those affected may also occasionally have false beliefs or see or hear things that others cannot.
Major depressive disorder can negatively affect a person's personal life, work life, or education as well as sleeping, eating habits, and general health.
The death of a loved one, loss of a job or the ending of a relationship are difficult experiences for a person to endure. It is normal for feelings of sadness or grief to develop in response to such situations. Those experiencing loss often might describe themselves as being “depressed.”
But being sad is not the same as having depression. The grieving process is natural and unique to each individual and shares some of the same features of depression. Both grief and depression may involve intense sadness and withdrawal from usual activities.
About 2–8% of adults with major depression die by suicide and about 50% of people who die by suicide had depression or another mood disorder.
Causes:
While we don’t know exactly what causes depression, a number of things are often linked to its development. Depression usually results from a combination of recent events and other longer-term or personal factors, rather than one immediate issue or event. Research suggests that a combination of psychological, environmental, genetic and biological factors play a role in depression.
Psychological Factors: An individual’s outlook to life largely depends upon his habitual thoughts.The habitual thoughts, in turn, have their roots in the upbringing or the childhood experiences of the individual. These experiences coupled with the individual’s reactions to the experiences mould and create his character.
For instance, a child exposed to a very severe and abusive childhood may grow up with little or no self-confidence, and low self-esteem. A child who is repeatedly criticised may find his perspective or views of the world coloured by negativity.
The constant negative thoughts can make an individual act in negative ways, which can create difficult situations in life, causing the individual to suffer emotionally and mentally.
Environmental Factors: A number of situations in the immediate environment of a person can affect his/her mental health and emotional well-being. Situations such as:
Long-lasting or life-threatening conditions like cancer or coronary heart disease can put you at higher risk of developing depression.
Many people don't know that head injuries can cause depression, and a severe head injury can lead to emotional problems and mood swings.
"Drowning your sorrows" is actually a bad idea when it comes to depression. Alcohol is categorised as a "strong depressant" which can make depression worse, and drinking or taking drugs to cope can lead to a downward spiral by having a negative effect on other parts of your life.
There's evidence that cannabis can cause depression, particularly in teenagers, even if it helps you relax.
Symptoms:
Diagnosis:
To effectively diagnose and treat depression, the doctor must hear about specific symptoms of depression. A doctor may use a series of standard questions to screen for depression. While a physical examination will reveal a patient's overall state of health, by talking with a patient, a doctor can learn about other things that are relevant to making a depression diagnosis. A patient, for example, can report on such things as daily moods, behaviors, and lifestyle habits.
A depression diagnosis is often difficult to make because clinical depression can manifest in so many different ways. For example, some clinically depressed individuals seem to withdraw into a state of apathy. Others may become irritable or even agitated. Eating and sleeping patterns can be exaggerated. Clinical depression may cause a person either to sleep or eat to excess or almost eliminate those activities.
Your doctor may determine a diagnosis of depression based on:
General Treatment:
Medications and psychotherapy are effective for most people with depression. Your primary care doctor or psychiatrist can prescribe medications to relieve symptoms. However, many people with depression also benefit from seeing a psychiatrist, psychologist or other mental health professional.
If you have severe depression, you may need a hospital stay, or you may need to participate in an outpatient treatment program until your symptoms improve.
Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is a general term for treating depression by talking about your condition and related issues with a mental health professional. Psychotherapy is also known as talk therapy or psychological therapy.
Psychotherapy can help you:
Lifestyle changes
Exercise: Regular exercise can be as effective at treating depression as medication. Not only does exercise boost serotonin, endorphins, and other feel-good brain chemicals, it triggers the growth of new brain cells and connections, just like antidepressants do. Best of all, you don’t have to train for a marathon in order to reap the benefits. Even a half-hour daily walk can make a big difference. For maximum results, aim for 30 to 60 minutes of aerobic activity on most days.
Social support: Strong social networks reduce isolation, a key risk factor for depression. Keep in regular contact with friends and family, or consider joining a class or group. Volunteering is a wonderful way to get social support and help others while also helping yourself.
Nutrition: Eating well is important for both your physical and mental health. Eating small, well-balanced meals throughout the day will help you keep your energy up and minimize mood swings. While you may be drawn to sugary foods for the quick boost they provide, complex carbohydrates are a better choice. They’ll get you going without the all-too-soon sugar crash.
Sleep: Sleep has a strong effect on mood. When you don’t get enough sleep, your depression symptoms will be worse. Sleep deprivation exacerbates irritability, moodiness, sadness, and fatigue. Make sure you’re getting enough sleep each night.
Stress reduction: Make changes in your life to help manage and reduce stress. Too much stress exacerbates depression and puts you at risk for future depression. Take the aspects of your life that stress you out, such as work overload or unsupportive relationships, and find ways to minimize their impact.
“Depression lies. It tells you you’ve always felt this way, and you always will. But you haven’t, and you won’t.” - Halley Cornell
------------------ANXITEY DISORDER-----------------------Overview:
Anxiety is a normal reaction to stress and can be beneficial in some situations. It can alert us to dangers and help us prepare and pay attention. Anxiety disorders differ from normal feelings of nervousness or anxiousness and involve excessive fear or anxiety. Anxiety disorders are the most common of mental disorders and affect nearly 30 percent of adults at some point in their lives. But anxiety disorders are treatable and a number of effective treatments are available. Treatment helps most people lead normal productive lives.
Occasional anxiety is OK. But anxiety disorders are different. They’re a group of mental illnesses that cause constant and overwhelming anxiety and fear. Excessive anxiety can make you avoid work, school, family get-togethers, and other social situations that might trigger or worsen your symptoms.
There are several types of anxiety disorders:
Generalized anxiety disorder. You feel excessive, unrealistic worry and tension with little or no reason.
Panic disorder. You feel sudden, intense fear that brings on a panic attack. During a panic attack, you may break out in a sweat, have chest pain, and have a pounding heartbeat (palpitations). Sometimes you may feel like you’re choking or having a heart attack.
Social anxiety disorder. Also called social phobia, this is when you feel overwhelming worry and self-consciousness about everyday social situations. You obsessively worry about others judging you or being embarrassed or ridiculed.
Medication-induced anxiety disorder. The use of certain medications or illegal drugs, or withdrawal from certain drugs, can trigger some symptoms of anxiety disorder.
Symptoms/Causes:
These common external factors can cause anxiety:
People may experience:
Treatment:
Also known as talk therapy or psychological counseling, psychotherapy involves working with a therapist to reduce your anxiety symptoms. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is the most effective form of psychotherapy for generalized anxiety disorder.
Generally a short-term treatment, cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on teaching you specific skills to directly manage your worries and help you gradually return to the activities you've avoided because of anxiety. Through this process, your symptoms improve as you build on your initial success.
Antidepressants. Antidepressants, including medications in the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) and serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI) classes, are the first-line medication treatments. Your doctor also may recommend other antidepressants.
Buspirone. An anti-anxiety medication called buspirone may be used on an ongoing basis. As with most antidepressants, it typically takes up to several weeks to become fully effective.
Benzodiazepines. In limited circumstances, your doctor may prescribe a benzodiazepine for the relief of anxiety symptoms. These sedatives are generally used only for relieving acute anxiety on a short-term basis. Because they can be habit-forming, these medications aren't a good choice if you have or had problems with alcohol or drug abuse.
While most people with anxiety disorders need psychotherapy or medications to get anxiety under control, lifestyle changes also can make a difference. Here's what you can do:
Overview :
Bipolar disorder is a mental illness marked by extreme changes in mood from high to low, and from low to high. Highs are periods of mania, while lows are periods of depression. The changes in mood may even become mixed, so you might feel elated and depressed at the same time.
When you become depressed, you may feel sad or hopeless and lose interest or pleasure in most activities. When your mood shifts to mania or hypomania (less extreme than mania), you may feel euphoric, full of energy or unusually irritable. These mood swings can affect sleep, energy, activity, judgment, behavior and the ability to think clearly.
Causes:
Bipolar disorder does not appear to have a single cause but is more likely to result from a range of factors that interact.
Symptoms:
Symptoms vary between people, and according to mood. Some people have clear mood shifts, with symptoms of mania and then of depression each lasting for several months, or with months of stability between them. Some spend months or years in a “high” or “low” mood.
A “mixed state” is when a manic and a depressive episode happen at the same time. The person may feel negative, as with depression, but they may also feel “wired” and restless.
Mania or hypomania
Hypomania and mania refer to a “high” mood. Mania is the more severe form.
Symptoms can include:
To date, there is no cure for bipolar disorder. But proper treatment helps most people with bipolar disorder gain better control of their mood swings and related symptoms. This is also true for people with the most severe forms of the illness.
Because it is a lifelong and recurrent illness, people with the disorder need long-term treatment to maintain control of bipolar symptoms. An effective maintenance treatment plan includes medication and psychotherapy for preventing relapse and reducing symptom severity.
These medications are commonly used as mood stabilizers in bipolar disorder:
In addition to medication, psychotherapy, or “talk” therapy, can be an effective treatment.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), once called shell shock or battle fatigue syndrome is a serious condition that can develop after a person has experienced or witnessed a traumatic or terrifying event in which serious physical harm occurred or was threatened. PTSD is a lasting consequence of traumatic ordeals that cause intense fear, helplessness, or horrors, such as a sexual or physical assault, the unexpected death of a loved one, an accident, war, or natural disaster. Families of victims can also develop PTSD, as can emergency personnel and rescue workers.
Most people who experience a traumatic event will have reactions that may include shock, anger, nervousness, fear, and even guilt. These reactions are common, and for most people, they go away over time. For a person with PTSD, however, these feelings continue and even increase, becoming so strong that they keep the person from living a normal life. People with PTSD have symptoms for longer than one month and cannot function as well as before the event occurred.
If you are given a diagnosis of PTSD, you might be told that you have mild, moderate or severe PTSD. This explains what sort of impact your symptoms are having on you currently – it’s not a description of how frightening or upsetting your experiences might have been.
PTSD may be described differently in some situations:
If you experience some PTSD symptoms while supporting someone close to you who’s experienced trauma, this is sometimes known as ‘secondary trauma’.
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can develop after a very stressful, frightening or distressing event, or after a prolonged traumatic experience.
Types of events that can lead to PTSD include:
Not every traumatized person develops ongoing (chronic) or even short-term (acute) PTSD. Not everyone with PTSD has been through a dangerous event. Some experiences, like the sudden, unexpected death of a loved one, can also cause PTSD. Symptoms usually begin early, within 3 months of the traumatic incident, but sometimes they begin years afterward. Symptoms must last more than a month and be severe enough to interfere with relationships or work to be considered PTSD.
Symptoms of PTSD fall into four categories. Specific symptoms can vary in severity.
Many people who are exposed to a traumatic event experience symptoms like those described above in the days following the event.
PTSD can lead to some complications.
These include:
People with PTSD may have other health problems, such as depression, anxiety, personality disorder, or the misuse of substances such as alcohol or drugs.
To diagnose post-traumatic stress disorder, your doctor will likely:
Diagnosis of PTSD requires exposure to an event that involved the actual or possible threat of death, violence or serious injury. Your exposure can happen in one or more of these ways:
Treatment usually involves psychotherapy and counseling, medication, or a combination.
Options for psychotherapy will be specially tailored for managing trauma.
They include:
Some medications can be used to treat the symptoms of PTSD.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as paroxetine, are commonly used. SSRIs also help treat depression, anxiety and sleep problems, symptoms that are often linked to PTSD. There have been some reports that antidepressant medications can cause an increased risk of suicide in individuals under the age of 24.
Sometimes, benzodiazepines may be used to treat irritability, insomnia, and anxiety. However, the National Center for PTSD does not recommend these, because they do not treat the core symptoms and they can lead to dependency.
Research has suggested that the following therapies may help, but further evidence is needed to confirm their safety and effectiveness.
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): Recalling the event while making a specific kind of side-to-side eye movement may help lower distress levels for people with PTSD. This allows the individual to have more positive emotions, behaviors, and thoughts.
MDMA: The pharmaceutical version of the recreational drug, ecstasy, may help people learn to deal with their memories more effectively by encouraging a feeling of safety. Scientists are currently researching this option.
Cortisone hormone therapy: One study has suggested that high-dose cortisol-based treatments could help reduce the risk of PTSD if given soon after a trauma occurs.
Computer games: Playing some computer games have been linked with fewer symptoms in some veterans with PTSD, according to a study published in 2017. However, the researchers do not recommend using computer games instead of regular therapy.
Active coping is a key part of recovery. It enables a person to accept the impact of the event they have experienced, and take action to improve their situation.
The following can help achieve this:
Learning about PTSD and understanding that an ongoing response is normal and that recovery takes time
Accepting that healing does not necessarily mean forgetting, but gradually feeling less bothered by the symptoms and having confidence in the ability to cope with the bad memories
Other things that can help include:
A number of helplines and other facilities are available for people who are or who may be experiencing the symptoms of PTSD.
After surviving a traumatic event, many people have PTSD-like symptoms at first, such as being unable to stop thinking about what’s happened. Fear, anxiety, anger, depression, guilt – all are common reactions to trauma. However, the majority of people exposed to trauma do not develop long-term post-traumatic stress disorder.
Getting timely help and support may prevent normal stress reactions from getting worse and developing into PTSD. This may mean turning to family and friends who will listen and offer comfort. It may mean seeking out a mental health professional for a brief course of therapy. Some people may also find it helpful to turn to their faith community.
Support from others also may help prevent you from turning to unhealthy coping methods, such as misuse of alcohol or drugs.
-----------------------Schizophrenia-------------------Overview:
Schizophrenia is a serious disorder that affects how a person thinks, feels, and acts. Someone with schizophrenia may have difficulty distinguishing between what is real and what is imaginary; may be unresponsive or withdrawn, and may have difficulty expressing normal emotions in social situations.
Paranoid type schizophrenia: Typically consists of false beliefs and hearing things that aren’t there; maybe more manageable than other types of schizophrenia (more on paranoid schizophrenia)
Disorganized type schizophrenia: Typically consists of thoughts, speech, and behavior that is inappropriate and incomprehensible
Catatonic type schizophrenia: Consists of activity levels on either end of the spectrum; either a dazed, coma-like state or a hyperactive state
Undifferentiated type schizophrenia: A form of schizophrenia that does not match any of the above types; sometimes this is called schizophrenia not otherwise specified
Residual type schizophrenia: Consists of some schizophrenic symptoms of lesser severity
Although the precise cause of schizophrenia isn’t known, certain factors seem to increase the risk of developing or triggering schizophrenia, including:
The cause of schizophrenia is still unclear. Some theories about the cause of this disease include genetics (heredity), biology (abnormalities in the brain’s chemistry or structure); and/or possible viral infections and immune disorders.
Genetics (Heredity)
Scientists recognize that the disorder tends to run in families and that a person inherits a tendency to develop the disease. Similar to some other genetically-related illnesses, schizophrenia may appear when the body undergoes hormonal and physical changes (like those that occur during puberty in the teen and young adult years) or after dealing with highly stressful situations.
Biology
Chemistry – Scientists believe that people with schizophrenia have an imbalance of the brain chemicals or neurotransmitters: dopamine, glutamate, and serotonin. These neurotransmitters allow nerve cells in the brain to send messages to each other. The imbalance of these chemicals affects the way a person’s brain reacts to stimuli–which explains why a person with schizophrenia may be overwhelmed by sensory information (loud music or bright lights) which other people can easily handle. This problem in processing different sounds, sights, smells and tastes can also lead to hallucinations or delusions.
Structure
Some research suggests that problems with the development of connections and pathways in the brain while in the womb may later lead to schizophrenia.
Viral Infections and Immune Disorders
Schizophrenia may also be triggered by environmental events, such as viral infections or immune disorders. For instance, babies whose mothers get the flu while they are pregnant are at higher risk of developing schizophrenia later in life. People who are hospitalized for severe infections are also at higher risk.
A medical or mental health professional may use the following terms when discussing the symptoms of schizophrenia.
Positive symptoms are disturbances that are “added” to the person’s personality.
Delusions: False ideas- individuals may believe that someone is spying on him or her, or that they are someone famous (or a religious figure).
Hallucinations: Seeing, feeling, tasting, hearing or smelling something that doesn’t really exist. The most common experience is hearing imaginary voices that give commands or comments to the individual.
Disordered thinking and speech: Moving from one topic to another, in a nonsensical fashion. Individuals may also make up their own words or sounds, rhyme in a way that doesn’t make sense or repeat words and ideas.
Disorganized behaviour: This can range from having problems with routine behaviors like hygiene or choosing appropriate clothing for the weather, to unprovoked outbursts, to impulsive and uninhibited actions. A person may also have movements that seem anxious, agitated, tense, or constant without any apparent reason.
Negative symptoms are capabilities that are “lost” from the person’s personality.
Left untreated, schizophrenia can result in severe problems that affect every area of life. Complications that schizophrenia may cause or be associated with include:
Diagnosis of schizophrenia involves ruling out other mental health disorders and determining that symptoms are not due to substance abuse, medication or a medical condition. Determining a diagnosis of schizophrenia may include:
Physical exam: This may be done to help rule out other problems that could be causing symptoms and to check for any related complications.
Tests and screenings: These may include tests that help rule out conditions with similar symptoms, and screening for alcohol and drugs. The doctor may also request imaging studies, such as an MRI or CT scan.
Psychiatric evaluation: A doctor or mental health professional checks mental status by observing appearance and demeanour and asking about thoughts, moods, delusions, hallucinations, substance use, and potential for violence or suicide. This also includes a discussion of family and personal history.
Diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia: A doctor or mental health professional may use the criteria in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), published by the American Psychiatric Association.
Your doctor should offer you psychosocial treatments. These treatments help you to look at how your thoughts and behaviour are influenced by the people and society you live in. This can include the following:
Talking treatments: NICE says the NHS should offer cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) to all adults with psychosis or schizophrenia. CBT can help you to manage your feelings and symptoms better. CBT does not get rid of your symptoms.
Psycho-education: This involves learning about your illness, your treatment, and how to spot early signs of becoming unwell again. It can prevent you from having a full-blown episode. Psycho-education may also be helpful for anyone who is supporting you, such as family, a partner, or a trusted colleague.
Arts therapies: This can help to reduce the negative symptoms of the illness. It can help you to express yourself more creatively.
Family therapy: NICE recommends family members of people with psychosis and schizophrenia should be offered family therapy. This can help to improve how you feel about family relationships. This can help reduce any problems in the family caused by your symptoms.
Overview:
Dementia is a general term for loss of memory, language, problem-solving, and other thinking abilities that are severe enough to interfere with daily life. Alzheimer's is the most common cause of dementia.
Dementia is caused by damage to brain cells. This damage interferes with the ability of brain cells to communicate with each other. When brain cells cannot communicate normally, thinking, behavior, and feelings can be affected.
The brain has many distinct regions, each of which is responsible for different functions (for example, memory, judgment, and movement). When cells in a particular region are damaged, that region cannot carry out its functions normally.
Different types of dementia are associated with particular types of brain cell damage in particular regions of the brain. For example, in Alzheimer's disease, high levels of certain proteins inside and outside brain cells make it hard for brain cells to stay healthy and to communicate with each other. The brain region called the hippocampus is the center of learning and memory in the brain, and the brain cells in this region are often the first to be damaged. That's why memory loss is often one of the earliest symptoms of Alzheimer's.
While most changes in the brain that cause dementia are permanent and worsen over time, thinking and memory problems caused by the following conditions may improve when the condition is treated or addressed:
Signs of dementia can vary greatly. Examples include:
There is no one test to determine if someone has dementia. Doctors diagnose Alzheimer's and other types of dementia based on a careful medical history, a physical examination, laboratory tests, and the characteristic changes in thinking, day-to-day function, and behavior associated with each type. Doctors can determine that a person has dementia with a high level of certainty. But it's harder to determine the exact type of dementia because the symptoms and brain changes of different dementias can overlap. In some cases, a doctor may diagnose "dementia" and not specify a type. If this occurs it may be necessary to see a specialist such as a neurologist or gero-psychologist.
Treatment of dementia depends on its cause. In the case of most progressive dementias, including Alzheimer's disease, there is no cure and no treatment that slows or stops its progression. But there are drug treatments that may temporarily improve symptoms. The same medications used to treat Alzheimer'sare among the drugs sometimes prescribed to help with symptoms of other types of dementias. Non-drug therapies can also alleviate some symptoms of dementia.
Ultimately, the path to effective new treatments for dementia is through increased research funding and increased participation in clinical studies. Right now, volunteers are urgently needed to participate in clinical studies and trials about Alzheimer's and other dementias.
Dementia risk and prevention
Some risk factors for dementia, such as age and genetics, cannot be changed. But researchers continue to explore the impact of other risk factors on brain health and prevention of dementia.
The research reported at the 2019 Alzheimer’s Association International Conference® suggests that adopting multiple healthy lifestyle choices, including a healthy diet, not smoking, regular exercise, and cognitive stimulation may decrease the risk of cognitive decline and dementia.
Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmissible infection caused by bacteria known as Neisseria gonorrhoeae. It usually affects the genital area, although the throat or anus (back passage) may also be affected. Gonorrhoea affects both men and women and is easily transmitted during vaginal intercourse. It can also be transmitted during anal or oral sex.
Factors that may increase your risk of gonorrhea infection include:
Gonorrhoea symptoms normally appear within 10 days of infection but they can occur many months later. Roughly 10% of men and 50% of women will not experience any symptoms at all.
In women, symptoms include:
Men may experience:
Infected semen or vaginal fluid in the eyes can cause inflammation of the eye (conjunctivitis). Unprotected anal or oral sex can lead to infection and symptoms in the rectum (discomfort, pain, bleeding, or discharge) or throat (normally no symptoms).
If you get treatment for gonorrhoea early, it’s less likely to cause you any further problems. If you don’t get treatment, there’s a risk the infection might spread to other parts of your body and cause complications. Not everyone who gets gonorrhoea will have complications, but the more times you have the infection, the greater your chance of becoming infertile, for example.
The infection can potentially spread to other parts of your body too. You can get symptoms such as:
Testing for gonorrhoea can be done by:
It is important to receive treatment for gonorrhoea as quickly as possible. It is unlikely the infection will go away without treatment and, if you delay treatment, you risk the infection causing complications and more serious health problems. You may also pass the infection onto someone else.
Gonorrhoea is treated with a single dose of antibiotics, usually one of the following:
The antibiotics are either given orally (as a pill) or as an injection.
Abstaining from sexual intercourse – until treatment is complete, there is still a risk of complications and spread of infection.
Repeat testing in some cases – it is not always necessary to be tested to make sure the treatment has worked. However, the CDC recommends retesting for some patients, and a doctor will decide if it is necessary. Retesting should be performed 7 days after treatment.
If a woman is pregnant and infected with gonorrhea, the infant will be given an eye ointment to prevent gonorrhea transmission. However, antibiotics may be required if an eye infection develops.
Gonorrhoea can be successfully prevented by:
Syphilis is an infection by the Treponema pallidum bacteria that is transmitted by direct contact with a syphilitic sore on the skin, and in mucous membranes. A sore can occur on the vagina, anus, rectum, lips, and mouth. It is most likely to spread during oral, anal, or vaginal sexual activity. Rarely, it can be passed on through kissing. The first sign is a painless sore on the genitals, rectum, mouth, or skin surface. Some people do not notice the sore because it doesn’t hurt. These sores resolve on their own, but the bacteria remain in the body if not treated. The bacteria can remain dormant in the body, sometimes for decades, before returning to damaged organs, including the brain.
You face an increased risk of acquiring syphilis if you:
Syphilis develops in stages, and symptoms vary with each stage. But the stages may overlap, and symptoms don’t always occur in the same order. You may be infected with syphilis and not notice any symptoms for years.
Primary syphilis
The first sign of syphilis is a small sore, called a chancre (SHANG-kur). The sore appears at the spot where the bacteria entered your body. While most people infected with syphilis develop only one chancre, some people develop several of them. The chancre usually develops about three weeks after exposure. Many people who have syphilis don’t notice the chancre because it’s usually painless, and it may be hidden within the vagina or rectum. The chancre will heal on its own within three to six weeks.
Secondary syphilis
Within a few weeks of the original chancre healing, you may experience a rash that begins on your trunk but eventually covers your entire body even the palms of your hands and the soles of your feet. This rash is usually not itchy and may be accompanied by wart-like sores in the mouth or genital area. Some people also experience hair loss, muscle aches, fever, sore throat, and swollen lymph nodes. These signs and symptoms may disappear within a few weeks or repeatedly come and go for as long as a year.
Latent syphilis
If you aren’t treated for syphilis, the disease moves from the secondary to the latent (hidden) stage, when you have no symptoms. The latent stage can last for years. Signs and symptoms may never return, or the disease may progress to the tertiary (third) stage.
Tertiary (late) syphilis
About 15 to 30 percent of people infected with syphilis who don’t get treatment will develop complications known as tertiary (late) syphilis. In the late stages, the disease may damage your brain, nerves, eyes, heart, blood vessels, liver, bones, and joints. These problems may occur many years after the original, untreated infection.
Congenital syphilis
Babies born to women who have syphilis can become infected through the placenta or during birth. Most newborns with congenital syphilis have no symptoms, although some experience a rash on the palms of their hands and the soles of their feet. Later symptoms may include deafness, teeth deformities, and saddle nose where the bridge of the nose collapses.
Without treatment, syphilis can lead to damage throughout your body. Syphilis also increases the risk of HIV infection and, for women, can cause problems during pregnancy. Treatment can help prevent future damage but can’t repair or reverse the damage that’s already occurred.
Small bumps or tumors
Called gummas, these bumps can develop on your skin, bones, liver, or any other organ in the late stage of syphilis. Gummas usually disappear after treatment with antibiotics.
Neurological problems
Syphilis can cause a number of problems with your nervous system, including:
Cardiovascular problems
These may include bulging (aneurysm) and inflammation of the aorta your body’s major artery and of other blood vessels. Syphilis may also damage heart valves.
HIV infection
Adults with sexually transmitted syphilis or other genital ulcers have an estimated two- to fivefold increased risk of contracting HIV. Syphilis sore can bleed easily, providing an easy way for HIV to enter your bloodstream during sexual activity.
Pregnancy and childbirth complications
If you’re pregnant, you may pass syphilis to your unborn baby. Congenital syphilis greatly increases the risk of miscarriage, stillbirth, or your newborn’s death within a few days after birth.
A doctor will carry out a physical examination and ask about a patient’s sexual history before carrying clinical tests to confirm syphilis.
Blood tests: These can detect a current or past infection, as antibodies to the disease will be present for many years.
Bodily fluid: from a chancre during the primary or secondary stages can be evaluated for the disease.
Cerebrospinal fluid: may be collected through a spinal tap and examined to test for any impact on the nervous system.
If there is a diagnosis of syphilis, any sexual partners must be notified of and tested for the disease.
Local services are available to notify sexual partners of their potential exposure to syphilis, to enable testing and, if necessary, treatment.
After you’re treated for syphilis, your doctor will ask you to:
Preventive measures that can decrease the risk of contracting syphilis, include:
Having syphilis once does not mean a person is protected from it. Once it is cured, it is possible to contract it again.
----------------------AIDS------------------------HIV is a virus that attacks the immune system, which is our body’s natural defense against illness. The virus destroys a type of white blood cell in the immune system called a T-helper cell and makes copies of itself inside these cells. T-helper cells are also referred to as CD4 cells.
The virus is actually not one, but several different viruses in the class of Retroviridae and the genus Lentivirus. The species differs and there is a larger list of subtypes. There are two major types: HIV1 and HIV2 – HIV1 is thought to originate from chimpanzees and gorillas in western Africa; HIV2 originates from sooty mangabeys (another ape) found in Senegal and Ghana. HIV1 is the more deadly and is the cause of the AIDS pandemic and can be divided into the M, N, O, and P subgroups, but HIV2 is also known to cause AIDS.
HIV advances in stages, overwhelming your immune system, and getting worse over time. The three stages of HIV infection are:
The first few weeks after the infection is called the acute infection stage. During this time the virus rapidly reproduces. Your immune system responds by producing HIV antibodies. Many people experience temporary flu-like symptoms during this stage. Even without symptoms, HIV is highly contagious during this time. Some of the symptoms during this stages include:
After the first month or so, HIV enters the clinical latency stage. This stage can last from a few years to a few decades. Progression can be slowed with antiretroviral therapy. Some people have symptoms. Many people do not, but it’s still contagious. As the virus progresses, you’re left with fewer T cells. This makes you more susceptible to disease, infection, and infection-related cancers.
Without treatment, HIV is likely to advance to AIDS. At that point, the immune system is too weak to fight off life-threatening diseases and infections. Untreated, life expectancy with AIDS is about three years.
AIDS is a disease caused by HIV. It’s the most advanced stage of HIV. But just because you have HIV doesn’t mean you’ll develop AIDS. HIV destroys T cells called CD4 cells. These cells help your immune system fight infections. Healthy adults generally have a CD4 count of 800 to 1,000 per cubic millimeter. If you have AIDS and your CD4 count falls below 200 per cubic millimeter, you will be diagnosed with AIDS.
You can also be diagnosed with AIDS if you have HIV and develop an opportunistic infection that is rare in people who don’t have HIV. AIDS weakens your immune system to the point where it can no longer fight off most diseases and infections. That makes you vulnerable to a wide range of illnesses, including:
Some of the ways AIDS is spread from person to person include:
It’s theoretically possible, but considered extremely rare, for AIDS to spread via:
There are four main types of HIV test:
The classes of anti-HIV drugs include:
Because the most common ways AIDS is transmitted is through anal or vaginal sex or sharing drug injection equipment with a person infected with AIDS, it is important to take steps to reduce the risks associated with these. They include:
Hepatitis B (Hep B) is an infection of your liver. It can cause scarring of the organ, liver failure, and cancer. It can be fatal if it isn’t treated. It’s spread when people come in contact with the blood, open sores, or body fluids of someone who has the hepatitis B virus. It’s serious, but if you get the disease as an adult, it shouldn’t last a long time. Your body fights it off within a few months, and you’re immune for the rest of your life. That means you can’t get it again. But if you get it at birth, it’ unlikely to go away.
As leading researchers in hepatitis B care, doctors at Stanford have a unique appreciation for the progression of hepatitis B. Accurately determining which form you have helps us select the best treatment.
You may have acute or chronic hepatitis B, depending on how long HBV has been in your blood:
It is caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV). The virus is passed from person to person through blood, semen or other body fluids. It does not spread by sneezing or coughing.
Common ways that HBV can spread are:
Certain groups are at particularly high risk of HBV infection. These include:
When you’re first infected, the warning signs include:
Symptoms may not show up until 1 to 6 months after you catch the virus. You might not feel anything. About a third of the people who have this disease don’t. They only find out through a blood test.
People with hep B can sometimes develop serious liver problems. These mostly affect people with untreated long-term (chronic) infection.
Some of the main problems associated with hep B include:
Doctors can usually diagnose with blood tests. Screening may be recommended for individuals who:
A hep B surface antigen test shows if you’re contagious. A positive result means you have hep B and can spread the virus. A negative result means you don’t currently have hep B. This test doesn’t distinguish between chronic and acute infection. This test is used together with other hep B tests to determine the state of a hep B infection.
The hep B core antigen test shows whether you’re currently infected with HBV. Positive results usually mean you have acute or chronic hep B. It may also mean you’re recovering from acute hep B.
A hep B surface antibody test is used to check for immunity to HBV. A positive test means you are immune to hepatitis B. There are two possible reasons for a positive test. You may have been vaccinated, or you may have recovered from an acute HBV infection and are no longer contagious.
Liver function tests are important in individuals with hep B or any liver disease. Liver function tests check your blood for the number of enzymes made by your liver. High levels of liver enzymes indicate a damaged or inflamed liver. These results can also help determine which part of your liver may be functioning abnormally.
If these tests are positive, you might require testing for hep B, C, or other liver infections. Hepatitis B and C viruses are a major cause of liver damage throughout the world. You will likely also require an ultrasound of the liver or other imaging tests.
Acute hepatitis B usually resolves on its own and does not require medical treatment. If very severe, symptoms such as vomiting or diarrhea are present, the affected person may require treatment to restore fluids and electrolytes. There are no medications that can prevent acute hepatitis B from becoming chronic.
If a person has chronic hepatitis B, they should see their health care provider and determine if medical treatment is appropriate.
Acute hepatitis B infection is not treated with antiviral medications.
The degree of liver damage is related to the amount of active, replicating (multiplying) virus in the blood and liver. Regularly measuring the amount of HBV DNA (‘viral load’) in the blood gives your physician a good idea of how fast the virus is multiplying. The treatments now in use are classified as antiviral drugs because they work by stopping the virus from multiplying.
Treatment is usually started when blood tests indicate that liver functions are deteriorating and the amount of replicating HBV is rising. Many people never reach this point. For those who do, the interval between diagnosis and starting treatment is quite variable.
There is no surgical therapy for hepatitis B.
If liver damage is so severe that the liver starts to fail, a liver transplant may be recommended.
The goals of self-care are to relieve symptoms and prevent worsening of the disease.
Testing & Vaccination
The basic test for acute HBV infection is called the “Hepatitis B Core IgM Antibody test.” People who have acute hepatitis B show positive IgM antibodies on this test.
Perinatal Hepatitis
Healthy Habits
The best way to prevent hep B is with vaccination. Other ways to reduce your risk of getting hep B, hepatitis C, and HIV:
After Exposure to Hepatitis B
Chlamydia is a common sexually transmitted disease. Chlamydial infection, caused by Chlamydia trachomatis, can infect both men and women. Women can get chlamydia in the cervix, rectum, or throat. Men can get chlamydia in the urethra (inside the penis), rectum, or throat.
Chlamydia is usually passed from one person to another through sexual contact. You can get the infection if you come into contact with the semen (cum or pre-cum) or vaginal fluids of someone who has chlamydia. Chlamydia is most commonly spread through:
More than two in three women and one in two men with chlamydia won’t have any obvious signs or symptoms or will have symptoms so mild they’re not noticed. Signs and symptoms can show up 1–3 weeks after coming into contact with chlamydia, many months later, or not until the infection spreads to other parts of your body. You might notice:
Women
Men
Men and women
You are most at risk of Chlamydia infection if:
Women
Men
Both men and women can develop reactive arthritis because of a chlamydia infection. Reactive arthritis is a type of arthritis that happens as a “reaction” to an infection in the body. Babies born to infected mothers can get eye infections and pneumonia from chlamydia. It may also make it more likely for your baby to be born too early. Untreated chlamydia may also increase your chances of getting or giving HIV/AIDS.
Screening and diagnosis of chlamydia is relatively simple. Tests include:
These steps will also help protect you from getting or passing on an infection without knowing it.
Herpes is an infection caused by HSV (herpes simplex virus). This virus affects the external genitalia, anal region, mucosal surfaces, and skin in other parts of the body. Herpes is a long-term condition. However, many people never have symptoms even though they are carrying the virus. The herpes simplex virus, also known as HSV, is an infection that causes herpes
There are two types of the herpes simplex virus.
Primary stage
This stage usually starts 2 to 8 days after you’re infected, but it can take much longer to begin. Usually, the infection causes groups of small, painful blisters. The fluid in the blisters may be clear or cloudy. The area under the blisters will be red. The blisters break open so easily that they quickly become open sores. You may not even notice the blisters.
Besides having tender blisters or sores in your genital area, it may hurt to urinate. You may run a fever, feel achy, and have other flu-like symptoms.
While most people have a painful primary stage of infection, some don’t have any symptoms at all, and may not even know they’re infected.
Latent stage
During this stage, there are no blisters, sores or other symptoms. At this time, the virus is traveling from your skin into the nerves near your spine.
Shedding stage
In the shedding stage, the virus starts multiplying in the nerve endings. If the affected nerve endings are in areas of the body that make or are in contact with body fluids, the virus can get into those body fluids (such as saliva, semen or vaginal fluids). There are no symptoms during this stage, but the virus can be spread during this time.
The origin of herpes in human history is unknown but the Herpes Simplex was first documented by ancient Greeks as sores that seem to “creep” over the surfaces of skin. Vidal, 1873, first demonstrated the Herpes Simplex Virus to be infections caused by human inoculation.
There is also evident speculation around two thousand years ago the Roman Emperor Tiberius attempted to curb an epidemic of herpes from the mouth by outlawing kissing during public ceremonies and rituals
HSV-2 is one of the most prevalent infections in the world. It is estimated that, in the United States, 40-60 million people are infected, with an incidence of 1-2 million infections and 600,000-800,000 new cases per year. The latest HSV-2 data published by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) at the National Sexually Transmitted Diseases Conference in 2010 in Atlanta indicated that the prevalence of HSV-2 is still high (16.2%), especially among black women, where rates may be as high as 48%.
Global prevalence is higher in women compared to men, especially among young people8. There is a six times greater chance of herpes transmission from men to women compared with transmission from women to men. In developed countries, where the acquisition of HSV-1 in childhood has been reduced, HSV-2 seroprevalence has increased, suggesting a possible protective effect of HSV-1 against acquisition of HSV-2.
When HSV is present on the surface of the skin of an infected person, it can easily be passed on to someone else through the moist skin that lines the mouth, anus, and genitals. The virus may also spread to another individual through other areas of skin, as well as the eyes.
A human cannot become infected with HSV by touching an object, work surface, washbasin, or towel that has been touched by an infected person. Infection can occur in the following ways:
The virus is most likely to be passed on just before the blister appears when it is visible, and until the blister is completely healed. HSV can still be transmitted to another person when there are no signs of an outbreak, although it is less likely.
If a mother with genital herpes has sores while giving birth, it is possible that the infection will be passed on to the baby.
Anyone can be infected with HSV, regardless of age. Your risk is based almost entirely on exposure to the infection.
In cases of sexually transmitted HSV, people are more at risk when they participate in risky sexual behavior without the use of protection, such as condoms. Other risk factors for HSV-2 include:
If a pregnant woman is having an outbreak of genital herpes at the time of childbirth, it can expose the baby to both types of HSV and may put them at risk for serious complications.
It is important to understand that someone may not have visible sores or symptoms and still be infected by the virus. And they may transmit the virus to others.
Some of the symptoms associated with this virus include:
You may also experience symptoms that are similar to the flu. These symptoms can include:
HSV can also spread to the eyes, causing a condition called herpes keratitis. This can cause symptoms such as eye pain, discharge, and a gritty feeling in the eye.
Herpes simplex in any patient with a seriously compromised immune system can cause serious and even life-threatening complications, including:
Potential effects of herpes in the newborn
Herpes infection in a newborn can cause a range of symptoms, including skin rash, fevers, mouth sores, and eye infections.
If left untreated, neonatal herpes is a very serious and even life-threatening condition.
Neonatal herpes can spread to the brain and central nervous system causing encephalitis and meningitis and leading to mental retardation, cerebral palsy, and death. Herpes can also spread to internal organs, such as the liver and lungs.
Infants infected with herpes are treated with acyclovir. It is important to treat babies quickly before the infection spreads to the brain and other organs.
There are a variety of treatment options. These include:
Home remedies
Medication
Episodic treatment and suppressive treatment
Episodic treatment is generally for people who have less than six recurrences in 1 year. Doctors may prescribe a 5-day course of antivirals each time symptoms appear.
Doctors prescribe suppressive treatment if a person experiences more than six recurrences in a year. In some cases, a doctor may recommend that the individual takes daily antiviral treatment indefinitely. The aim here is to prevent further recurrences. Although suppressive treatment significantly reduces the risk of passing HSV to a partner, there is still a risk.
Other treatments
Glaucoma is a condition that damages your eye's optic nerve. The optic nerve supplies visual information to your brain from your eyes. It gets worse over time. It's often linked to a buildup of pressure inside your eye.
Glaucoma is often called the "silent thief of sight," because most of its types typically cause no pain and produce no symptoms until noticeable vision loss occurs. Glaucoma tends to run in families. You usually don’t get it until later in life.
Causes:
Sometimes, experts don’t know what causes this blockage. But it can be inherited, meaning it’s passed from parents to children.
Less common causes of glaucoma include a blunt or chemical injury to your eye, severe eye infection, blocked blood vessels inside your eye, and inflammatory conditions.
Most types of glaucoma typically cause no pain and produce no symptoms until noticeable vision loss occurs. Acute angle closure glaucoma, which is also known as narrow-angle glaucoma, is a medical emergency. See your doctor immediately if you experience any of the following symptoms:
Diagnosis:
To diagnose glaucoma, your ophthalmologist will want to perform a comprehensive eye examination. They’ll check for signs of deterioration, including loss of nerve tissue. They may also use one or more of the following tests and procedures
The damage caused by glaucoma can't be reversed. But treatment and regular checkups can help slow or prevent vision loss, especially if you catch the disease in its early stages. Treatment for glaucoma can involve surgery, laser treatment or medication, depending on the severity. Eye drops with medication aimed at lowering IOP are usually tried first to control glaucoma.
Surgery: If a blocked or slow channel is causing increased IOP, your doctor may suggest surgery to make a drainage path for fluid or destroy tissues that are responsible for the increased fluid.
If your increased IOP can be stopped and the pressure returned to normal, vision loss can be slowed or even stopped. However, because there’s no cure for glaucoma, you’ll likely need treatment for the rest of your life to regulate your IOP. Unfortunately, vision loss as a result of glaucoma cannot be restored.
----------------------Cataracts ----------------------------A cataract is a clouding of the normally clear lens of your eye. For people who have cataracts, seeing through cloudy lenses is a bit like looking through a frosty or fogged-up window. A cataract begins when proteins in the eye form clumps that prevent the lens from sending clear images to the retina. The retina works by converting the light that comes through the lens into signals. It sends the signals to the optic nerve, which carries them to the brain. Clouded vision caused by cataracts can make it more difficult to read, drive a car (especially at night) or see the expression on a friend's face. It’s a common condition in older adults, and it can be treated by your eye doctor. There are different types of cataracts. They include:
Other things that can increase the risk of getting cataracts to include increased UV light exposure, smoking, and heavy drinking.
Causes:
There are several underlying causes of cataracts. These include:
Signs and symptoms of cataracts include:
Diagnosis:
To determine whether you have a cataract, your doctor will review your medical history and symptoms, and perform an eye examination. Your doctor may conduct several tests, including:
If you’re unable or uninterested in surgery, your doctor may be able to help you manage your symptoms. They may suggest stronger eyeglasses, magnifying lenses, or sunglasses with an anti-glare coating.
Talk with your eye doctor about whether surgery is right for you. Most eye doctors suggest considering cataract surgery when your cataracts begin to affect your quality of life or interfere with your ability to perform normal daily activities, such as reading or driving at night.
Conjunctivitis, also known as pink eye, is an inflammation of the conjunctiva. The conjunctiva is the thin clear tissue that lies over the white part of the eye and lines the inside of the eyelid. When small blood vessels in the conjunctiva become inflamed, they're more visible. This is what causes the whites of your eyes to appear reddish or pink.
Pink eye is commonly caused by a bacterial or viral infection, an allergic reaction, or — in babies — an incompletely opened tear duct. Children get it a lot. It can be highly contagious (it spreads rapidly in schools and daycares), but it’s rarely serious. It's very unlikely to damage your vision, especially if you find it and treat it quickly.
Causes of pink eye include:
They depend on the cause of the inflammation, but may include:
Diagnosis:
A doctor can diagnose conjunctivitis by looking at the signs and symptoms and asking some questions. Treatment for irritant and allergic conjunctivitis is different from that for an infection.
Some cases of infective conjunctivitis resolve within a few days to 2 weeks without treatment, but some may take up to a month. For bacterial conjunctivitis, antibiotics can shorten recovery time and reduce the spread of infection to others.
If symptoms persist for 2 weeks or more, the person should return to see their doctor, who will reassess the diagnosis and adjust the treatment.
Home remedies might be enough to soothe pink eye symptoms associated with colds, minor infections, or allergies. Treatment consists primarily of cleansing the eyes with artificial tears. Cool compresses can also be soothing.
If you wear contact lenses, you'll be advised to stop wearing them until treatment is complete. Your doctor will likely recommend that you throw out contacts you've worn if your lenses are disposable.
Viral conjunctivitis often begins in one eye and then infects the other eye within a few days. Your signs and symptoms should gradually clear on their own.
Antiviral medications may be an option if your doctor determines that your viral conjunctivitis is caused by the herpes simplex virus.
If you already have pink eye, you can help keep your friends and family safe by doing the following:
Overview:
If you’ve seen a lot of extra hair on your pillow, brush, or shower drain, or you’ve noticed odd little bald spots in the mirror, you might have an autoimmune disorder called alopecia areata. It affects roughly 6.8 million people in the United States.
In the majority of cases, hair falls out in small patches around the size of a quarter. For most people, the hair loss is nothing more than a few patches, though in some cases it can be more extreme.
Sometimes, it can lead to the complete loss of hair on the scalp (alopecia totalis) or, in extreme cases, the entire body (alopecia Universalis). The condition can affect anyone regardless of age and gender, though most cases occur before the age of 30.
Here are some key points about alopecia areata. More detail and supporting information is in the main article.
Causes:
The most common cause of hair loss is hereditary male- or female-pattern baldness.
Hair loss is typically related to one or more of the following factors:
Hair loss can appear in many different ways, depending on what's causing it.
Diagnosis:
Doctors are usually able to diagnose alopecia areata fairly easily by examining symptoms. They might look at the degree of hair loss and examine hairs from affected areas under a microscope.
If, after an initial clinical examination, the doctor is not able to make a diagnosis, they can perform a skin biopsy. If they need to rule out other autoimmune diseases, they might perform a blood test.
As the symptoms of alopecia areata are so distinctive, making a diagnosis is usually quick and straightforward.
Medications will likely be the first course of treatment for hair loss. Over-the-counter (OTC) medications generally consist of topical creams and gels that you apply directly to the scalp.
Scalp Reduction: In a scalp reduction, a surgeon removes part of your scalp that lacks hair. The surgeon then closes the area with a piece of your scalp that has hair. Another option is a flap, in which your surgeon folds the scalp that has hair over a bald patch. This is a type of scalp reduction.
----------------Dehydration----------------------Overview
Dehydration happens when your body doesn't have as much water as it needs. Without enough, your body can't function properly. You can have mild, moderate, or severe dehydration depending on how much fluid is missing from your body.
When too much water is lost from the body, its organs, cells, and tissues fail to function as they should, which can lead to dangerous complications. If dehydration isn’t corrected immediately, it could cause shock.
The human body is roughly 75 percent water. Without this water, it cannot survive. Water is found inside cells, within blood vessels, and between cells. A sophisticated water management system keeps our water levels balanced, and our thirst mechanism tells us when we need to increase fluid intake.
Causes:
The basic causes of dehydration are not taking in enough water, losing too much water, or a combination of both.
Signs of mild or moderate dehydration include:
Signs of severe dehydration include:
Symptoms for babies and young children can be different than for adults:
Severe dehydration is a medical emergency and needs to be treated immediately.
Diagnosis:
A doctor will use both physical and mental exams to diagnose dehydration. A patient presenting symptoms such as disorientation, low blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, fever, lack of sweat, and inelastic skin will usually be considered dehydrated.
To help confirm the diagnosis and pinpoint the degree of dehydration, you may have other tests, such as:
Fluid replacement is the treatment for dehydration. This may be attempted by replacing fluid by mouth, but if this fails, intravenous fluid (IV) may be required. Should oral rehydration be attempted, frequent small amounts of clear fluids like Water, Clear broths, Popsicles, Jell-O should be used.
Home Remedies:
Steps a person can take at home to prevent severe dehydration include:
The average adult needs between 2 and 3 liters of fluid per day.
-------------------Diabetes---------------------Diabetes is a condition that impairs the body’s ability to process blood glucose, otherwise known as blood sugar. It is a disorder of metabolism -- the way our bodies use digested food for growth and energy. Glucose is vital to your health because it's an important source of energy for the cells that make up your muscles and tissues. It's also your brain's main source of fuel.
In the United States, the estimated number of people over 18 years of age with diagnosed and undiagnosed diabetes is 30.2 million. The figure represents between 27.9 and 32.7 percent of the population.
The underlying cause of diabetes varies by type. But, no matter what type of diabetes you have, it can lead to excess sugar in your blood.
Type I diabetes: Also known as juvenile diabetes, this type occurs when the body fails to produce insulin. People with type I diabetes are insulin-dependent, which means they must take artificial insulin daily to stay alive.
Type 2 diabetes: It affects the way the body uses insulin. While the body still makes insulin, unlike in type I, the cells in the body do not respond to it as effectively as they once did. This is the most common type of diabetes, according to the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, and it has strong links with obesity.
Gestational diabetes: This type occurs in women during pregnancy when the body can become less sensitive to insulin. Gestational diabetes does not occur in all women and usually resolves after giving birth.
Similar symptoms of type 1 & type 2
Symptoms of Type 2 Diabetes
These tend to show up after your glucose has been high for a long time.
Symptoms of Type 1 Diabetes
Symptoms of Gestational Diabetes
High blood sugar during pregnancy usually has no symptoms. You might feel a little thirstier than normal or have to pee more often.
Signs of type 2 diabetes' complications may include:
Diagnosis:
Controlling your blood sugar level is essential to keeping your baby healthy and avoiding complications during delivery. In addition to maintaining a healthy diet and exercising, your treatment plan may include monitoring your blood sugar and, in some cases, using insulin or oral medications.
Your doctor also will monitor your blood sugar level during labor. If your blood sugar rises, your baby may release high levels of insulin — which can lead to low blood sugar right after birth.
If you have prediabetes, healthy lifestyle choices can help you bring your blood sugar level back to normal or at least keep it from rising toward the levels seen in type 2 diabetes. Maintaining a healthy weight through exercise and healthy eating can help. Exercising at least 150 minutes a week and losing about 7 percent of your body weight may prevent or delay type 2 diabetes.
Dizziness is the feeling of being lightheaded, woozy, or unbalanced. It affects the sensory organs, specifically the eyes and ears, so it can sometimes cause fainting. Dizziness isn’t a disease, but rather a symptom of various disorders. Dizziness is one of the more common reasons adults visit their doctors.
Frequent dizzy spells or constant dizziness can significantly affect your life. But dizziness rarely signals a life-threatening condition. Dizziness is common and its underlying cause usually isn’t serious. Occasional dizziness is not something to worry about. However, you should call your doctor immediately if you’re experiencing repeated episodes of dizziness for no apparent reason or for a prolonged period.
Causes:
People experiencing dizziness may feel various sensations, including:
Diagnosis:
Most people visiting their doctor because of dizziness will first be asked about their symptoms and medications and then be given a physical examination. You may also need a hearing test and balance tests, including:
Vestibular rehabilitation. This is a type of physical therapy aimed at helping strengthen the vestibular system. The function of the vestibular system is to send signals to the brain about head and body movements relative to gravity.
Canalith repositioning maneuvers: The movements are done to move the calcium deposits out of the canal into an inner ear chamber so they can be absorbed by the body. You will likely have vertigo symptoms during the procedure as the canaliths move.
A doctor or physical therapist can guide you through the movements. The movements are safe and often effective.
Medicine. In some cases, medication may be given to relieve symptoms such as nausea or motion sickness associated with vertigo.
If vertigo is caused by an infection or inflammation, antibiotics or steroids may reduce swelling and cure an infection.
For Meniere's disease, diuretics (water pills) may be prescribed to reduce pressure from fluid buildup.
Surgery. In a few cases, surgery may be needed for vertigo.
If vertigo is caused by a more serious underlying problem, such as a tumor or injury to the brain or neck, treatment for those problems may help to alleviate vertigo.
Home Remedies:
Influenza, or flu, is a respiratory illness that results from a viral infection. Flu is highly contagious and spreads through respiratory droplets. A person can pass it on while talking or through physical contacts, such as shaking hands. Influenza is a viral infection that attacks your respiratory system — your nose, throat, and lungs. For most people, influenza resolves on its own. But sometimes, influenza and its complications can be deadly. We all are at risk of getting and spreading the flu.
Having the flu may keep you home from work or school, not to mention making you feel pretty miserable for a week or two. If you have asthma or other lung diseases, you are at a higher risk of developing complications from the flu.
Causes:
Flu viruses travel through the air in droplets when someone with the infection coughs, sneezes or talks. You can inhale the droplets directly, or you can pick up the germs from an object — such as a telephone or computer keyboard — and then transfer them to your eyes, nose or mouth. Influenza viruses are constantly changing, with new strains appearing regularly. If you've had influenza in the past, your body has already made antibodies to fight that particular strain of the virus. If future influenza viruses are similar to those you've encountered before, either by having the disease or by getting vaccinated, those antibodies may prevent infection or lessen its severity.
But antibodies against flu viruses you've encountered in the past can't protect you from new influenza strains that can be very different immunologically from what you had before.
Symptoms:
In adults
In children:
If a child has the following symptoms, they need emergency medical care:
In babies:
Flu can be dangerous for babies.
Diagnosis:
Your doctor will conduct a physical exam, look for signs and symptoms of influenza, and possibly order a test that detects influenza viruses. During times when influenza is widespread, you may not need to be tested for influenza.
Your doctor may diagnose you based on your signs and symptoms. In some cases, your doctor may suggest that you be tested for influenza. He or she may use various tests to diagnose influenza. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing is becoming more common in many hospitals and labs.
Usually, you'll need nothing more than bed rest and plenty of fluids to treat the flu. But if you have a severe infection or are at higher risk for complications, your doctor may prescribe an antiviral medication. Antiviral medication side effects may include nausea and vomiting. These side effects may be lessened if the drug is taken with food. Most people will be able to treat the flu at home. A combination of lifestyle remedies and over-the-counter medication can help relieve symptoms.
Pain relief medication can help manage a headache and body pains. A healthcare professional can recommend the best options.
Home Remedies:
When a person has flu, it is essential that they:
Other things people can try at home include:
Food poisoning, also called foodborne illness, is an illness caused by eating contaminated food. Infectious organisms — including bacteria, viruses, and parasites — or their toxins are the most common causes of food poisoning. The symptoms may be related only to the gastrointestinal tract causing vomiting or diarrhea or they may involve other organs such as the kidney, brain, or muscle. Although it’s quite uncomfortable, food poisoning isn’t unusual. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Trusted Source, 1 in 6 Americans will contract some form of food poisoning every year. Infectious organisms or their toxins can contaminate food at any point of processing or production. Contamination can also occur at home if food is incorrectly handled or cooked.
Causes:
The most common cause of food poisoning may be due to infections caused by
Contamination of food can happen at any point in production: growing, harvesting, processing, storing, shipping, or preparing. Cross-contamination — the transfer of harmful organisms from one surface to another — is often the cause. This is especially troublesome for raw, ready-to-eat foods, such as salads or other produce. Because these foods aren't cooked, harmful organisms aren't destroyed before eating and can cause food poisoning.
Common causes of food poisoning will typically include at least three of the following symptoms:
Symptoms of potentially life-threatening food poisoning include:
Diagnosis:
Food poisoning is often diagnosed based on a detailed history, including how long you've been sick, your symptoms, and specific foods you've eaten. Your doctor will also perform a physical exam, looking for signs of dehydration.
Depending on your symptoms and health history, your doctor may conduct diagnostic tests, such as a blood test, stool culture, or examination for parasites, to identify the cause and confirm the diagnosis.
For a stool test, your doctor will send a sample of your stool to a lab, where a technician will try to identify the infectious organism. If an organism is found, your doctor likely will notify your local health department to determine if the food poisoning is linked to an outbreak.
Food poisoning usually resolves themselves without any medical intervention. Treatment is focused on reducing the symptoms and preventing complications, especially dehydration.
The main treatment and prevention strategy for food poisoning is to rest and replace lost fluids and electrolytes by:
Prevention
Standard advice to avoid food poisoning includes four key components:
Headaches
A headache is a very common condition that causes pain and discomfort in the head, scalp, or neck. It’s estimated that 7 in 10 people have at least one headache each year. It can be more complicated than most people realize. Different kinds can have their own set of symptoms, happen for unique reasons, and need different treatments.
There are different types of headaches.
The World Health Organization points out that nearly everyone experiences a headache once in a while.
Causes:
The pain you feel during a headache comes from a mix of signals between your brain, blood vessels, and nearby nerves. Specific nerves in your blood vessels and head muscles switch on and send pain signals to your brain. Common causes of headaches include:
The characteristics of a headache — and the effects on daily life — can vary. A headache may:
The features of the pain depend, to some extent, on the type of headache.
Diagnosis:
A headache can sometimes be a symptom of a disease or other medical condition. A doctor may be able to determine the underlying cause of a headache by taking a medical history and performing a physical examination. This exam should include a complete neurological evaluation.
A doctor may also order diagnostic tests if they suspect that a certain medical condition is causing the headaches. These tests might include:
Rest and pain relief medication are the main treatments for headaches.
Options include:
If medications aren’t working, there are several other remedies that can help treat headaches:
Insomnia is a common sleep disorder that can make it hard to fall asleep, hard to stay asleep or cause you to wake up too early and not be able to get back to sleep. You may still feel tired when you wake up. Insomnia can sap not only your energy level and mood but also your health, work performance, and quality of life.
Insomnia is commonly separated into three types:
Transient insomnia – occurs when symptoms last up to three nights.
Acute insomnia – also called short-term insomnia. Symptoms persist for several weeks.
Chronic insomnia – this type lasts for months, and sometimes years. According to the National Institutes of Health, the majority of chronic insomnia cases are side effects resulting from another primary problem.
Insomnia can occur at any age and is more likely to affect women than men. According to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, people with certain risk factors are more likely to have insomnia. These risk factors include:
Insomnia can be caused by physical and psychological factors. There is sometimes an underlying medical condition that causes chronic insomnia, while transient insomnia may be due to a recent event or occurrence. Insomnia is commonly caused by:
Disruptions in circadian rhythm – Jet lag, job shift changes, high altitudes, environmental noise, extreme heat or cold.
Psychological issues – Bipolar disorder, depression, anxiety disorders, or psychotic disorders.
Medical conditions – Chronic pain, chronic fatigue syndrome, congestive heart failure, angina, acid-reflux disease (GERD), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, sleep apnea, Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s diseases, hyperthyroidism, arthritis, brain lesions, tumors, stroke.
Hormones – Estrogen, hormone shifts during menstruation.
Other factors – Sleeping next to a snoring partner, parasites, genetic conditions, overactive mind, pregnancy.
According to guidelines from a physician group, people with insomnia have one or more of the following symptoms:
There is no definitive test for insomnia. Doctors use many different tools to diagnose and measure insomnia symptoms, some of which involve asking you questions in the office, having you fill out logs and questionnaires, performing certain blood tests, or doing an overnight sleep study. All of these tests help your doctor understand your personal experience with insomnia and create the right treatment plan.
Sleep log: A sleep log is a simple diary that keeps track of details about your sleep. In a sleep log, you’ll record details like your bedtime, wake up time, how sleepy you feel at various times during the day, and more. An asleep log can also help your doctor figure out what might be causing insomnia. Here is a sample sleep log.
Sleep inventory: Asleep inventory is an extensive questionnaire that gathers information about your personal health, medical history, and sleep patterns.
Blood tests: Your doctor may perform certain blood tests to rule out medical conditions such as thyroid problems, which can disrupt sleep in some people.
Sleep study: Your doctor may suggest that you do an overnight sleep study, or polysomnography, to gather information about your nighttime sleep. In this exam, you sleep overnight in a lab set up with a comfortable bed. During the exam, you will be connected to an EEG, which monitors the stages of your sleep. A sleep study also measures things like oxygen levels, body movements, and heart and breathing patterns. A sleep study is a non-invasive test.
As a continuing theme of this review, there is no evidence that any type or subtype of insomnia is differentially responsive to one or more treatment types. This said, a general overview of treatment approaches is provided below.
In general, there are four approaches to the medical treatment of insomnia.
The first approach is via the use of sedative-hypnotics (barbiturates (e.g., amobarbital), benzodiazepines (e.g., temazepam), and benzodiazepines receptor agonists (e.g., zolpidem)). Of these classes, barbiturates are no longer considered to have a primary indication for the treatment of insomnia, owing to its low therapeutic index.
Currently, there are no data to suggest that benzodiazepine receptor agonists have superior efficacy or safety profiles as compared to benzodiazepines, although it is generally believed that benzodiazepine receptor agonists have a higher therapeutic index.
The second approach is via the use of melatonin agonists. Currently, there is only one compound with a Food and Drug Administration (FDA) indication for the treatment of insomnia (ramelteon). While there are no data regarding this medication’s relative efficacy, it has been shown to have larger effects on polysomnographic (PSG) measures as compared to prospective self-report measures (sleep diaries).
The third approach is via the use of low-dose doxepin (Silenoir). This compound, originally developed and marketed as an antidepressant, is thought to provide good efficacy while providing a reduced risk for side effects and tolerance, especially in elderly patients.
The fourth approach includes a variety of off-label approaches using antidepressants (e.g., trazodone) and/or antipsychotics (quetiapine) medications. At present, the limited data that exist do not suggest that either approach has superior efficacy and/or better safety profiles than the benzodiazepines or benzodiazepine receptor agonists.
Cognitive behavioural approaches
The primary cognitive behavioural treatment of insomnia (CBT-I) is a multicomponent behavioral therapy that usually comprises three core treatments: stimulus control, sleep restriction and sleep hygiene therapies. Interestingly, and despite the ‘C’ in CBT-I, it is often the case that formal cognitive therapy is not part of the CBT-I intervention.
Stimulus control therapy
Stimulus control instructions
Sleep restriction
Sleep restriction therapy (SRT) requires patients to limit the amount of time they spend in bed to an amount equal to their average total sleep time (TST). When sleep proves to be efficient, TST is incrementally increased.
Sleep hygiene
This intervention requires that the clinician and patient review a set of instructions that are geared toward helping the patient maintain good sleep habits. Sleep hygiene instructions, it should be noted, are not helpful when provided as a monotherapy
Many people never visit their doctor for insomnia and try to cope with sleeplessness on their own. Although in many cases safety and effectiveness have not been proved, some people try therapies such as:
Melatonin. This over-the-counter (OTC) supplement is marketed as a way to help overcome insomnia. It’s generally considered safe to use melatonin for a few weeks, but no convincing evidence exists to prove that melatonin is an effective treatment for insomnia, and the long-term safety is unknown.
Valerian. This dietary supplement is sold as a sleep aid because it has a mildly sedating effect, although it hasn’t been well-studied. Discuss valerian with your doctor before trying it. Some people who have used high doses or used it long term may have had liver damage, although it’s not clear if valerian caused the damage.
Acupuncture. There’s some evidence that acupuncture may be beneficial for people with insomnia, but more research is needed. If you choose to try acupuncture along with your conventional treatment, ask your doctor how to find a qualified practitioner.
Yoga or tai chi. Some studies suggest that the regular practice of yoga or tai chi can help improve sleep quality.
Meditation. Several small studies suggest that meditation, along with conventional treatment, may help improve sleep and reduce stress.
General recommendations for the prevention of insomnia include the following:
Learn to relax. Self-hypnosis, biofeedback, and relaxation breathing are often helpful.
Control your environment. Avoid light, noise, and excessive temperatures. Use the bed only to sleep and avoid using it for reading and watching TV. Sexual activity is an exception.
Establish a bedtime routine. Have a fixed wake time.
Malaria is one of the major public health problems in the country. Around 1.5 million confirmed cases are reported annually by the National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP), of which 40–50% is due to Plasmodium falciparum. Malaria is curable if effective treatment is started early. Delay in treatment may lead to serious consequences including death. Prompt and effective treatment is also important for controlling the transmission of malaria.
The life cycle of the falciparum malaria parasite is complex. When an infectious mosquito feeds on a human being, parasites (called sporozoites) are injected into the bloodstream. From here they travel directly to the liver where they mature for about 6 days. At this stage, there are no symptoms of disease in the person who has been infected.
Malaria can occur if a mosquito infected with the Plasmodium parasite bites you. There are four kinds of malaria parasites that can infect humans: Plasmodium vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, and P. falciparum. P. falciparum causes a more severe form of the disease and those who contract this form of malaria have a higher risk of death. An infected mother can also pass the disease to her baby at birth. This is known as congenital malaria. Malaria is transmitted by blood, so it can also be transmitted through:
Malaria infection is generally characterized by recurrent attacks with the following signs and symptoms:
Other complications that can arise as a result of severe malaria include:
Blood tests can show the presence of the parasite and help tailor treatment by determining:
Some blood tests can take several days to complete, while others can produce results in less than 15 minutes.
Besides supportive care, the medical team needs to decide on the appropriate antibiotics to treat malaria. The choice will depend on several factors, including
Physicians will administer the medication in pill form or as an intravenous antibiotic depending on the above factors.
The most commonly used medications are
1. Grapefruit
Grapefruit contains a substance called quinine which is said to neutralize malaria inducing parasites. It aides in destroying the parasites and strengthens the immune system. A malaria patient should consume grapefruit and grapefruit juice to combat the disease.
2. Cinnamon
Cinnamon has great medicinal values and it contains cinnamaldehyde which provides aid against inflammation. This spice is full of anti-parasitic qualities. Its consumption provides immediate relief to body ache that is usually attached to malaria. It can be boiled with water and the concoction can be taken with honey. It also reverses the loss of appetite, cramps, nausea etc. Consuming this concoction can be a very useful home remedy to fight malaria.
3. Holy basil
Often the major symptoms of malaria include body and joint pains. Holy basil is a popular herb that eases inflammation and joint pains. It can be an amazing home remedy to treat the symptoms of malaria. It is also included in many ayurvedic medicines and is said to cure many diseases including malaria. Basil can be infused with tea or can be boiled with water and consumed with honey by the person suffering from malaria.
4. Fever nuts
These are nuts which contain seeds with immense medicinal properties. It breaks the malaria fever and boosts the immune system. This herb effectively treats the symptom of malaria and helps in curing the person suffering from malaria fever by reducing the soaring body temperatures. Fever nuts are one of the best home remedies that can be used against malaria symptoms. This is one of the best home remedies one can do to prevent malaria.
5. Ginger
Possible qualities of ginger help in relieving nausea, fever, body ache, and in improving the appetite. Ginger is one food item that is available in every Indian household and can be used as a home remedy to fight malaria and is symptoms. It can be boiled with water and can be consumed to speed up the recovery process. It has natural antibiotic properties which can be enhanced if it is taken with raisins. This is one of the best home remedies one can do to prevent malaria.
---------------------Obesity------------------------Obesity is a complex disorder involving an excessive amount of body fat. Obesity isn’t just a cosmetic concern. It increases your risk of diseases and health problems, such as heart disease, diabetes, and high blood pressure. Being extremely obese means you are especially likely to have health problems related to your weight. Obesity is best defined by using the body mass index.
The body mass index (BMI) is a statistical measurement derived from your height and weight. Although it is considered to be a useful way to estimate healthy body weight, it does not measure the percentage of body fat. The BMI measurement can sometimes be misleading – a muscleman may have a high BMI but have much less fat than an unfit person whose BMI is lower. However, in general, the BMI measurement can be a useful indicator for the ‘average person’.
Central obesity
This type of obesity can also be called as abdominal, visceral, android or apple-shaped obesity. It is basically the type of obesity in which there is increased abdominal fat. People with central obesity have a higher risk of acquiring heart diseases and diabetes type 2. This type is more commonly observed in men.
Generalized obesity
This type can also be called as gynoid or pear-shaped obesity. It is more commonly associated with women. In this, there is fat accumulation within the subcutaneous tissue.
Obesity usually results from a combination of causes and contributing factors, including:
Genetics: Your genes may affect the amount of body fat you store, and where that fat is distributed. Genetics may also play a role in how efficiently your body converts food into energy and how your body burns calories during exercise.
Family lifestyle: Obesity tends to run in families. If one or both of your parents are obese, your risk of being obese is increased. That’s not just because of genetics. Family members tend to share similar eating and activity habits.
Inactivity: If you’re not very active, you don’t burn as many calories. With a sedentary lifestyle, you can easily take in more calories every day than you burn through exercise and routine daily activities. Having medical problems, such as arthritis, can lead to decreased activity, which contributes to weight gain.
Unhealthy diet: A diet that’s high in calories, lacking in fruits and vegetables, full of fast food and laden with high-calorie beverages and oversized portions contribute to weight gain.
Medical problems: In some people, obesity can be traced to a medical cause, such as Prader-Willi syndrome, Cushing’s syndrome, and other conditions. Medical problems, such as arthritis, also can lead to decreased activity, which may result in weight gain.
Certain medications: Some medications can lead to weight gain if you don’t compensate through diet or activity. These medications include some antidepressants, anti-seizure medications, diabetes medications, antipsychotic medications, steroids, and beta-blockers.
Social and economic issues: Research has linked social and economic factors of obesity. Avoiding obesity is difficult if you don’t have safe areas to exercise. Similarly, you may not have been taught healthy ways of cooking, or you may not have money to buy healthier foods. In addition, the people you spend time with may influence your weight — you’re more likely to become obese if you have obese friends or relatives.
Age: Obesity can occur at any age, even in young children. But as you age, hormonal changes and a less active lifestyle increase your risk of obesity. In addition, the amount of muscle in your body tends to decrease with age. This lower muscle mass leads to a decrease in metabolism. These changes also reduce calorie needs and can make it harder to keep off excess weight. If you don’t consciously control what you eat and become more physically active as you age, you’ll likely gain weight.
Pregnancy: During pregnancy, a woman’s weight necessarily increases. Some women find this weight difficult to lose after the baby is born. This weight gain may contribute to the development of obesity in women.
Quitting smoking: Quitting smoking is often associated with weight gain. And for some, it can lead to enough weight gain that the person becomes obese. In the long run, however, quitting smoking is still a greater benefit to your health than continuing to smoke.
Lack of sleep: Not getting enough sleep or getting too much sleep can cause changes in hormones that increase your appetite. You may also crave foods high in calories and carbohydrates, which can contribute to weight gain.
Obesity, however, has many causes. The reasons for the imbalance between calorie intake and consumption vary by individual. Your age, gender, genes, psychological makeup, socioeconomic, and environmental factors all may contribute.
Genes: Your genes may play a role in the efficiency of metabolism and storage and distribution of body fat.
Family lifestyle: Obesity tends to run in families. This is caused both by genes and by shared diet and lifestyle habits. If one of your parents is obese, you have a higher risk of being obese.
Emotions: Some people overeat because of depression, hopelessness, anger, boredom, and many other reasons that have nothing to do with hunger. This doesn’t mean that overweight and obese people have more emotional problems than other people. It just means that their feelings influence their eating habits, causing them to overeat.
Environmental factors: The most important environmental factor is a lifestyle. Your eating habits and activity level are partly learned from the people around you. Overeating and sedentary habits (inactivity) are the most important risk factors for obesity.
Socioeconomic factors: Do you live in a neighborhood where it is safe to exercise outdoors? Is there a supermarket with fresh foods in your neighborhood?
Sex: Men have more muscle than women, on average. Because muscle burns more calories than other types of tissue, men use more calories than women, even at rest. Thus, women are more likely than men to gain weight with the same calorie intake.
Age: People tend to lose muscle and gain fat as they age. Their metabolism also slows somewhat. Both of these lower their calorie requirements.
Pregnancy: Women tend to weigh an average of 4-6 pounds more after pregnancy than they did before the pregnancy. This can compound with each pregnancy.
Certain medical conditions and medications can cause or promote obesity, although these are much less common causes of obesity than overeating and inactivity. Some examples of these are as follows:
Obesity can be associated with other eating disorders, such as binge eating or bulimia. The distribution of your body fat also plays a role in determining your risk of obesity-related health problems. There are at least two different kinds of body fat. Studies conducted in Scandinavia have shown that excess body fat distributed around the waist (apple-shaped figure, intra-abdominal fat) carries more risk than fat distributed on the hips and thighs (pear-shaped figure, fat under the skin).
The primary warning sign of obesity is an above-average body weight.
If you are obese, you may also experience:
Obesity increases your risk for:
Your doctor may diagnose overweight and obesity based on your medical history, physical exams that confirm you have a high body mass index (BMI) and possibly a high waist circumference, and tests to rule out other medical conditions.
To diagnose overweight and obesity, doctors measure BMI using calculations that depend on whether you are a child or an adult.
Children: A healthy weight is usually when your child’s BMI is at the 5th percentile up to less than the 85th percentile based on growth charts for children who are the same age and sex. To figure out your child’s BMI, use the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) BMI Percentile Calculator for Child and Teen, and compare the BMI with the table below.
Adults: A healthy weight for adults is usually when your BMI is 18.5 to less than 25. To figure out your BMI, use the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute’s online BMI calculator and compare it with the table below. You can also download the BMI calculator app for iPhone (link is external) and Android (link is external). Even if your BMI is in the healthy range, it is possible to be diagnosed as obese if you have a large waist circumference that suggests increased amounts of fat in your abdomen that can lead to complications.
Weight reduction is achieved by:
Structured approaches and therapies to reduce weight include:
A modified diet: A reasonable weight loss goal is 1 to 2 pounds per week. This can usually be achieved by eating 500 to 1,000 fewer calories each day. Whether you concentrate on eating less fat or fewer carbohydrates is up to you. Fats have more than twice as many calories per ounce than carbohydrates or protein. If you cut out carbohydrates, you still need to limit fat intake. Choose healthy fats, such as monounsaturated and polyunsaturated oils.
Regular exercise: To effectively lose weight, most people need to do moderate-intensity exercise for 60 minutes most days of the week. Add more activity during the day. Take the stairs and get up often from your desk or sofa.
Non-prescription orlistat: Orlistat inhibits fat absorption in the intestine. Until recently, this medication was only available by prescription (Xenical). Over-the-counter medicine is sold at a lower dose than Xenical. But the active ingredient is the same.
Other non-prescription diet pills: Over-the-counter diet pills often contain ingredients that can increase heart rate and blood pressure. It is not clear how effective they are in producing weight loss that can be maintained over time. Common side effects include feeling jittery and nervous and having heart palpitations. Some experts believe they may be associated with an increased risk of stroke.
Prescription diet pills: To help you lose weight, your doctor may prescribe medications along with a calorie-restricted diet. Almost all people regain weight when they stop using these medications. The effects of long-term use of these drugs have not been determined.
Surgery: In general, weight-loss surgery (called bariatric surgery) may be considered if your BMI is 40 or greater, or your BMI is 30-35 or greater and you have at least one medical condition directly related to obesity. In addition, you must have participated in a structured weight loss program without success.
To prevent obesity and maintain healthy body weight, eat a well-balanced diet, and exercise regularly. Preventing obesity is important. Once fat cells form, they remain in your body forever. Although you can reduce the size of fat cells, you cannot get rid of them.
-----------------------HEART----------------- -------------High B.P---------------Overview :
High blood pressure, or hypertension, occurs when your blood pressure increases to unhealthy levels. Your blood pressure measurement takes into account how much blood is passing through your blood vessels and the amount of resistance the blood meets while the heart is pumping.
Narrow arteries increase resistance. The narrower your arteries are, the higher your blood pressure will be. Over the long term, the increased pressure can cause health issues, including heart disease.
Hypertension is quite common. Since the guidelines have recently changed, it’s expected that nearly half of American adults will now be diagnosed with this condition.
Hypertension typically develops over several years. Usually, you don’t notice any symptoms. But even without symptoms, high blood pressure can cause damage to your blood vessels and organs, especially the brain, heart, eyes, and kidneys.
Early detection is important. Regular blood pressure readings can help you and your doctor notices any changes. If your blood pressure is elevated, your doctor may have you check your blood pressure over a few weeks to see if the number stays elevated or falls back to normal levels.
Treatment for hypertension includes both prescription medication and healthy lifestyle changes. If the condition isn’t treated, it could lead to health issues, including heart attack and stroke.
Causes:
There are two types of hypertension. Each type has a different cause.
Primary hypertension is also called essential hypertension. This kind of hypertension develops over time with no identifiable cause. Most people have this type of high blood pressure.
Researchers are still unclear what mechanisms cause blood pressure to slowly increase. A combination of factors may play a role. These factors include:
Secondary hypertension often occurs quickly and can become more severe than primary hypertension. Several conditions that may cause secondary hypertension include:
Hypertension is generally a silent condition. Many people won’t experience any symptoms. It may take years or even decades for the condition to reach levels severe enough that symptoms become obvious. Even then, these symptoms may be attributed to other issues.
Symptoms of severe hypertension can include:
These symptoms require immediate medical attention. They don’t occur in everyone with hypertension, but waiting for a symptom of this condition to appear could be fatal.
The best way to know if you have hypertension is to get regular blood pressure readings. Most doctors’ offices take a blood pressure reading at every appointment.
If you only have a yearly physical, talk to your doctor about your risks for hypertension and other readings you may need to help you watch your blood pressure.
For example, if you have a family history of heart disease or have risk factors for developing the condition, your doctor may recommend that you have your blood pressure checked twice a year. This helps you and your doctor stay on top of any possible issues before they become problematic.
Diagnosing hypertension is as simple as taking a blood pressure reading. Most doctors’ offices check blood pressure as part of a routine visit. If you don’t receive a blood pressure reading at your next appointment, request one.
If your blood pressure is elevated, your doctor may request you have more readings over a few days or weeks. A hypertension diagnosis is rarely given after just one reading. Your doctor needs to see evidence of a sustained problem. That’s because your environment can contribute to increased blood pressure, such as the stress you may feel by being at the doctor’s office. Also, blood pressure levels change throughout the day.
If your blood pressure remains high, your doctor will likely conduct more tests to rule out underlying conditions. These tests can include:
These tests can help your doctor identify any secondary issues causing your elevated blood pressure. They can also look at the effects high blood pressure may have had on your organs.
During this time, your doctor may begin treating your hypertension. Early treatment may reduce your risk of lasting damage.
Several factors help your doctor determine the best treatment option for you. These factors include which type of hypertension you have and what causes have been identified.
If your doctor diagnoses you with primary hypertension, lifestyle changes may help reduce your high blood pressure. If lifestyle changes alone aren’t enough, or if they stop being effective, your doctor may prescribe medication.
If your doctor discovers an underlying issue causing your hypertension, treatment will focus on that other condition. For example, if a medicine you’ve started taking is causing increased blood pressure, your doctor will try other medicines that don’t have this side effect.
Sometimes, hypertension is persistent despite treatment for the underlying cause. In this case, your doctor may work with you to develop lifestyle changes and prescribe medications to help reduce your blood pressure.
Treatment plans for hypertension often evolve. What worked at first may become less useful over time. Your doctor will continue to work with you to refine your treatment.
Many people go through a trial-and-error phase with blood pressure medications. You may need to try different medicines until you find one or a combination of medications that work for you.
Healthy lifestyle changes can help you control the factors that cause hypertension. Here are some of the most common home remedies.
A heart-healthy diet is vital for helping to reduce high blood pressure. It’s also important for managing hypertension that is under control and reducing the risk of complications. These complications include heart disease, stroke, and heart attack.
A heart-healthy diet emphasizes foods that include:
Reaching a healthy weight should include being more physically active. In addition to helping you shed pounds, exercise can help reduce stress, lower blood pressure naturally, and strengthen your cardiovascular system.
Aim to get 150 minutes of moderate physical activity each week. That’s about 30 minutes five times per week.
If you are overweight or obese, losing weight through a heart-healthy diet and increased physical activity can help lower your blood pressure.
Exercise is a great way to manage stress. Other activities can also be helpful. These include:
These are all proven stress-reducing techniques. Getting adequate sleep can also help reduce stress levels.
If you’re a smoker, try to quit. The chemicals in tobacco smoke damage the body’s tissues and harden blood vessel walls.
If you regularly consume too much alcohol or have an alcohol dependency, seek help to reduce the amount you drink or stop altogether. Alcohol can raise blood pressure.
Coronary artery disease develops when the major blood vessels that supply your heart become damaged or diseased. Cholesterol-containing deposits (plaques) in your coronary arteries and inflammation are usually to blame for coronary artery disease.
The coronary arteries supply blood, oxygen, and nutrients to your heart. A buildup of plaque can narrow these arteries, decreasing blood flow to your heart. Eventually, the reduced blood flow may cause chest pain (angina), shortness of breath, or other coronary artery disease signs and symptoms. A complete blockage can cause a heart attack.
Because coronary artery disease often develops over decades, you might not notice a problem until you have a significant blockage or a heart attack. But you can take steps to prevent and treat coronary artery disease. A healthy lifestyle can make a big impact.
Coronary artery disease is thought to begin with damage or injury to the inner layer of a coronary artery, sometimes as early as childhood. The damage may be caused by various factors, including:
Once the inner wall of an artery is damaged, fatty deposits (plaque) made of cholesterol and other cellular waste products tend to collect at the site of injury. This process is called atherosclerosis. If the plaque surface breaks or ruptures, blood cells called platelets clump together at the site to try to repair the artery. This clump can block the artery, leading to a heart attack.
Risk factors for coronary artery disease include:
If your coronary arteries narrow, they can't supply enough oxygen-rich blood to your heart — especially when it's beating hard, such as during exercise. At first, the decreased blood flow may not cause any symptoms. As plaque continues to build up in your coronary arteries, however, you may develop the following coronary artery disease signs and symptoms:
Heart attack. A completely blocked coronary artery will cause a heart attack. The classic signs and symptoms of a heart attack include crushing pressure in your chest and pain in your shoulder or arm, sometimes with shortness of breath and sweating.
Women are somewhat more likely than men are to have less typical signs and symptoms of a heart attack, such as neck or jaw pain. And they may have other symptoms such as shortness of breath, fatigue, and nausea.
Sometimes a heart attack occurs without any apparent signs or symptoms.
Coronary artery disease can lead to:
The same lifestyle habits used to help treat coronary artery disease can also help prevent it. A healthy lifestyle can help keep your arteries strong and clear of plaque. To improve your heart health, follow these tips:
If your condition doesn’t improve with lifestyle changes and medication, your doctor may recommend a procedure to increase blood flow to your heart. These procedures may be:
Overview:
Cardiac arrest is a serious heart condition. The word arrest means stopping or bring to a halt. In cardiac arrest, the heart ceases to beat. It’s also known as sudden cardiac death.
Your heartbeat is controlled by electrical impulses. When these impulses change the pattern, the heartbeat becomes irregular. This is also known as an arrhythmia. Some arrhythmias are slow, others are rapid. Cardiac arrest occurs when the rhythm of the heart stops.
Cardiac arrest is an extremely serious health issue. The Institute of Medicine reports that every year, more than half a million people experience cardiac arrest in the United States. The condition can cause death or disability. If you or someone you’re with is experiencing symptoms of cardiac arrest, seek emergency health assistance immediately. It can be fatal. Immediate response and treatment can save a life.
Causes: Cardiac Arrest
A number of factors can cause sudden cardiac arrest. Two of the most common are ventricular and atrial fibrillation.
Your heart has four chambers. The two lower chambers are the ventricles. In ventricular fibrillation, these chambers quiver out of control. This causes the heart’s rhythm to change dramatically. The ventricles begin to pump inefficiently, which severely decreases the amount of blood pumped through the body. In some cases, the circulation of blood stops completely. This may lead to sudden cardiac death.
The most frequent cause of cardiac arrest is ventricular fibrillation.
The heart can also stop beating efficiently after an arrhythmia in the upper chambers. These chambers are known as the atria.
Atrial fibrillation begins when the sinoatrial (SA) node doesn’t send out the correct electrical impulses. Your SA node is located in the right atrium. It regulates how quickly the heart pumps blood. When the electrical impulse goes into atrial fibrillation, the ventricles can’t pump blood out to the body efficiently.
Who Is at Risk for Cardiac Arrest?
Certain heart conditions and health factors can increase your risk of cardiac arrest.
This type of heart disease begins in the coronary arteries. These arteries supply the heart muscle itself. When they become blocked, your heart does not receive blood. It may stop working properly.
Having an abnormally large heart places you at increased risk for cardiac arrest. A large heart may not beat correctly. The muscle may also be more prone to damage.
Valve disease can make heart valves leaky or narrower. This means blood circulating through the heart either overload the chambers with blood or does not fill them to capacity. The chambers may become weakened or enlarged.
Some people are born with heart damage. This is known as a congenital heart problem. Sudden cardiac arrest may occur in children who were born with a serious heart problem.
Problems with your heart’s electrical system can increase your risk of sudden cardiac death. These problems are known as primary heart rhythm abnormalities.
Other risk factors for cardiac arrest include:
Signs and Symptoms of Cardiac Arrest:
Early symptoms of cardiac arrest are often warning signs. Getting treatment before your heart stops could save your life.
If you are in cardiac arrest, you may:
Immediate emergency care is needed if you or someone you are with experiences these symptoms:
Cardiac arrest may not have symptoms before it occurs. If you do have symptoms that persist, seek prompt medical care.
Diagnosing Cardiac Arrest:
During a cardiac event that causes your heart to stop beating efficiently, it’s vital to seek medical attention immediately. Medical treatment will focus on getting the blood flowing back to your body. Your doctor will most likely perform a test called an electrocardiogram to identify the type of abnormal rhythm your heart is experiencing. To treat the condition, your doctor will likely use a defibrillator to shock your heart. An electric shock can often return the heart to a normal rhythm.
Other tests can also be used after you have experienced a cardiac event:
Treating Cardiac Arrest:
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is one form of emergency treatment for cardiac arrest. Defibrillation is another. These treatments get your heart beating again once it has stopped.
If you survive a cardiac arrest, your doctor may start you on one or more treatments to reduce the risk of another attack.
Long-Term Outlook of Cardiac Arrest
Cardiac arrest can be fatal. However, prompt treatment increases your odds of survival. Treatment is most effective within a few minutes of the arrest.
If you have experienced cardiac arrest, it’s important to understand the cause. Your long-term outlook will depend on the reason you experienced cardiac arrest. Your doctor can talk to you about treatment options to help protect your heart and prevent the cardiac arrest from happening again.
---------------Thromobosis-------------------Arterial thrombosis is a blood clot that develops in an artery. It's dangerous as it can obstruct or stop the flow of blood to major organs, such as the heart or brain.
If a blood clot narrows one or more of the arteries leading to the heart, muscle pain known as angina can occur.
If a blood clot blocks the arteries leading to part of the heart muscle, it will cause a heart attack. If it blocks an artery in the brain, it will cause a stroke.
Symptoms, therefore, depend on where the blood clot has formed.
Most cases of arterial thrombosis are caused when a process called atherosclerosis damages an artery.
Fatty deposits build up on the walls of the arteries and cause them to harden and narrow.
Arterial thrombosis occurs when a blood clot forms within an artery, slowing or stopping the flow of blood.
Your blood contains cells called platelets and proteins (clotting factors). Together they make up the blood-clotting mechanism.
When a blood vessel is cut, the platelets and clotting factors in your blood mesh together to form a solid clot at the site of the wound. This clot acts as a plug to stop the wound from bleeding.
Normally, the blood-clotting mechanism is triggered when a blood vessel is damaged and bleeds, such as when you cut yourself. However, the blood may sometimes begin to clot even when a blood vessel has not been damaged.
If this happens, a blood clot can form within a vein or artery (thrombosis).
Most cases of arterial thrombosis are caused when an artery is damaged by atherosclerosis.
Depending on where the clot is in your body, a blood clot in an artery (arterial thrombosis) can cause:
A heart attack can happen when a blood clot completely blocks an artery that pumps blood to your heart muscle.
You may experience:
Arterial thrombosis can cause a stroke if a blood clot is blocking an artery that supplies blood to your brain.
The symptoms of a stroke can come on suddenly and may include:
If you have a narrowing of an artery in one or both of your legs (peripheral vascular disease) you may:
The tests used to diagnose blood clots in the arteries (arterial thrombosis) will depend on what medical condition the blood clot has triggered.
Suspected cases of unstable angina and heart attacks are diagnosed using an electrocardiogram (ECG).
Every time your heart beats, it produces tiny electrical signals that will show on paper. This allows your doctor to see how well your heart is functioning or if there are any areas not receiving blood as in a heart attack.
Blood may also be taken to measure levels of a protein called troponin. This is released when the heart muscle is damaged by a heart attack.
Suspected cases of stroke are diagnosed by producing a scan of the brain using a computed tomography (CT) scan or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan.
There are two main types of treatment for a blood clot that develops in an artery (arterial thrombosis):
Medication can help dissolve clots and restore the flow of the blood to the brain or heart.
You may need a heart procedure if the blood clot is in an artery that supplies blood to your heart.
A coronary angioplasty is the most common type of procedure for a heart attack.
A hollow metal tube called a stent is inserted to widen the artery and stop it from blocking again.
Occasionally, a coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) may be carried out after a heart attack.
A blood vessel that is taken from another part of the body is used to bypass where the blockage is.
Another type of surgery for arterial thrombosis is called carotid endarterectomy, which you may have if you have had a blood clot in an artery in your neck (causing a stroke).
The surgeon makes a cut in your neck to open up the artery and remove the fatty deposits.
Fatty deposits build up on the walls of the arteries and cause them to harden and narrow. The risk factors for a blood clot in an artery include: